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ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
ENGLISH GRAMMARS EXTANT, 

WITH 

COPIOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING AND SYNTAX; 

A NEW EDITION, 

REVISED. RE -ARRANGED AND IMPROVED 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
BY REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D. 

LATE PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IX THE ALBANY ACADEMY J AUTHOR OF 

THE SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ETC, 

ON THE SAME PLAN. 



THIRTIETH EDITION, REVISED. 



NEW YOEK: 

PUBLISHED BY PKATT, OAKLEY & CO. 

NO. 4 CORTLANDT STREET. 

1858, 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand 
Eight Hundred and Fifty-one, by Eev. PETER BULLIONS, B. D., 
in the Clerk's Office of the Northern District of New York, 



/ 







48 65 55 




AUG 1 4 1942 





fc^L 



PREFACE. 



A knowledge of English Grammar is very properly considered 
an indispensable part of an English education; and is now taught 
as such, in all our Academies and Common Schools. The great 
number of elementary works which have recently appeared on 
this subject, is a pleasing evidence of the attention which has been 
I bestowed upon it. Among these, none has enjoyed greater favor 
than the Grammar of Lindley Murray •, and the high rank which 
it still holds among the numerous works which have appeared 
since its publication, is a decided testimony to the soundness of 
its principles and the excellence of the system. With all its ex- 
cellence, however, it is far from being incapable of improvement; 
and the attempt to add to its value as a manual for schools, by 
correcting what is erroneous, retrenching what is superfluous or 
unimportant, compressing what is prolix, elucidating what is ob- 
scure, determining what was left doubtful, supplying what is de- 
fective, and bringing up the whole to that state of improvement 
to which the labours of eminent scientific and practical writers of 
the present day have so greatly contributed, can hardly fail, if 
well executed, to prove acceptable to the public. Such was my 
design; and though there may be reason to regret that it has not 
been undertaken by some one more capable of doing justice to the 
subject, still it is hoped that the labor bestowed, in order to carry 
it into effect, will not be altogether in vain. 

In endeavoring to avoid the minutise and diffuseness of the larger 
Grammar, care has been taken to guard against the opposite ex- 
treme. The abridgments of Murray now in use, are little more 
than a synopsis of the larger work; presenting a mere outline of 
the subject, altogether too meagre to be of much service to the 
learner. The same remark is applicable to a great number of 
smaller works which have been published with a similar view; 
namely, to serve as an introduction to a more extended system, 
They are incapable themselves of imparting a satisfactory know- 
ledge of the subject; and yet it often happens, perhaps even in a 
majority of cases, that those who have commenced with the " in- 
troduction," have neither the time nor the means to get beyond 
it : and besides, unless the "introduction" be constructed on the 




, ^ A& 



PREFACE. 

Hciple of arrangement and expression with the one which 
[ to succeed it, it will probably be found worse than use- 
less •, for when a particular arrangement and phraseology have 
become familiar to the mind, there is great difficulty in studying 
another work on the same subject, in which the arrangement ana 
expression are materially different. A Grammar, to be really 
valuable, ought to be simple in its style and arrangement, so as to 
be adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is designed •, 
comprehensive, so as to be a sufficient guide in the most difficult, 
as well as in easy cases-, and its principles and rules should be 
rendered familiar to the learner by numerous examples and exer- 
cises. 

To meet these views of what a Grammar for the use of Schools 
ought to be, the present compilation has been made : with what 
success, a discerning public, to whose judgment it is respectfully 
submitted, will decide. Utility, not novelty, has been aimed at. 
In collecting materials, I have freely availed myself of the labors 
of others who have treated on the subject since the days of Mur- 
ray, and particularly of those whose object has been similar to my 
own. Lennie's u Principles of English Grammar,' 1 deservedly 
esteemed in Britain the best compend for the use of schools which 
has yet appeared, I have adopted as the ground plan of my work. 
The works of Murray, Angus, Connel, Grant, Crombie, Hiley, 
and others in the extensive collection of my friend Dr. Beck:, to 
which I have enjoyed free access, have been consulted; and from 
all of them has been carefully selected, condensed, and arranged, 
whatever seemed to be suitable to my purpose. For several va- 
luable suggestions, also, I am indebted to Dr. T. R. Beck, and 
several other literary friends, who kindly examined my MSS. be- 
fore they were sent to press, and freely communicated their sen- 
timents. On the whole, it is believed that there is nothing of 
much importance in Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works 
of subsequent writers, that will not be found condensed here. 

On the subject of Etymology, much expansion has been deemed 
unnecessary; I have therefore generally contented myself with 
stating results, without embarrassing the work with the processes, 
often tedious and obscure, which have led to them. In the clas- 
sification of words, almost all writers differ from one another; and 
though on this subject there has been much discussion, nothing 
has yet been proposed which, on the whole, appears less objeo 



preface: v 

tionable in principle, or more convenient in practice, than that of 
Murray, which is therefore generally retained. 

In Syntax, greater dullness has been considered proper. In the 
arrangement of the Rules, scarcely two writers have followed the 
same order; and that here adopted is somewhat different from any 
other. Without regarding much the usual livision of Syntax into 
Concord and Government, those rules are placed first which ap- 
pear to be most simple, and of most frequent occurrence. Care 
has been taken, however, to connect with a leading rule those of 
a subordinate character allied to it, and to add under every rule 
such notes and observations as appeared necessary to its illustra- 
tion. Numerous examples of false syntax follow each rule, gene- 
rally on the same page-, also examples adapted to the notes, etc. 
are subjoined, distinguished by the number of the note to which 
they belong. For the purpose of better exercising the judgment 
of the pupil, there have been introduced at intervals, exercises on 
the preceding rules promiscuously arranged; and at the end, pro- 
miscuous exercises are furnished on all the rules and observations •, 
the whole forming a body of exercises, containing perhaps not 
fewer examples than Murray's separate volume of Exercises on 
the Rules of Syntax. In this, economy as well as convenience 
has been consulted. The leading principles have been made so 
prominent by being printed on a large type, that they may be 
easily studied by the youngest classes without a separate com- 
pend. Every thing necessary for the fuller expansion and illus- 
tration of these principles, has been introduced in its place ; and 
the whole furnished with questions and appropriate exercises, in 
order to render every part familiar to the mind of the pupil as he 
advances, so that no larger treatise, and no separate book of ex- 
ercises, will be necessary. The arrangement of the exercises on 
gyntax on the same page with the rule which they are designed 
to illustrate, it is believed, will greatly diminish the labor, both 
of teacher and pupil, in going over this important part of the 
subject. 

Another object steadily kept in view in this compilation, is to 
render it a profitable introduction to classical studies. While all 
languages differ from one another in their modes of inflexion, and 
in some forms of expression peculiar to themselves, usually de- 
nominated idioms, their general principles are, to a very great 
extent, the same. It would seem, therefore, to be proper, in 

' A* 



VI ' PREFACE. 

constructing grammars for different languages, that the pnnci 
pies, so far as they are the same, should be arranged in the same 
order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the same words. 
Were this carefully done, the study of the grammar of one lan- 
guage would be a very important aid in the study of another 5 and 
the opportunity thus afforded, of seeing wherein they agree and 
wherein they differ, would of itself furnish a profitable exercise 
in comparative grammar. But when a Latin grammar is put 
into the hands of a boy, differing widely in its arrangement or 
phraseology from the English grammar which he had previously 
studied, and then in due time a Greek grammar different from 
both, not only is the benefit derived from the analogy of the dif- 
ferent languages in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is 
made to appear intolerably intricate and mysterious. To remedy 
this evil, I resolved, some time ago, to publish a series of Gram- 
mars of the English, Latin, and Greek languages, arranged in 
the same order, and expressed as nearly in the same words as the 
genius of the languages would permit. 

This series has now been some time before the public, and 
has been received with a degree of favor far surpassing my ex- 
pectations. 

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.. 

New plates for this work having become necessary, the oppor- 
tunity has been embraced to improve the work in such a way as 
to render it still more worthy of public favor. Several of the 
definitions and rules have been rendered more strictly accurate. 
In many places, observations and remarks have been introduced, 
where they seemed to be necessary to complete or elucidate the 
subject. The etymology of the article which stood before, is 
now, as it should be, placed after the noun ; and that of the par- 
ticiple is placed with the moods and tenses, before the inflection 
of the verb, instead of coming after it. In these two instances 
only, is the order of the sections changed. In the verb, the de- 
signation and arrangement of tenses first adopted in this Grammar, 
but which were subsequently changed, are here resumed, being 
considered as altogether better, because more natural and appro 
priate. The former designations, however, are placed in paren- 
theses, (except the imperfect, which does not correctly express 
the import of that tense), that teachers may adopt those which 





. 






PRE 


FACE. VII 






they prefer. In the observations on the tenses, an attempt has 
been made to render them more full and explicit-, and in the 
> inflection of the verb, negative and interrogative forms have 

been introduced after the active voice. 

In Syntax, two or three rules have been altered, where it 
seemed desirable for the sake of greater accuracy and simplicity. 
80 much of Rules IV., V., and VI. as referred to the pronoun, 
has been omitted, to avoid the confusion occasioned by uniting 
two subjects (the verb and personal pronoun) under one rule, and 
all that relates to the Syntax of the personal pronoun has been 
placed together in special rules under Rule X. The exercises 
under these rules have been revised and made to correspond to 
these changes. In Prosody, several defects have been supplied, 
and the article on Composition has been considerably enlarged. 

To make room for these improvements, the lists of questions 
heretofore interspersed through the work, and the utility of which 
has been questioned by distinguished teachers, have been removed 
to the end of the book, where they are placed together, so that 
they may be used or not, as the teacher may direct. For the 
same purpose, all discussions of grammatical questions have been 
removed from the body of the work to the Appendix, and suita- 
ble reference made to them in the text. In this position, they 
interfere less with the regular progress of the work, and may be 
consulted at pleasure. By this means, also, an opportunity is 
afforded of discussing the several subjects, when it was thought 
important, at greater length than would have been proper in their 
place j and hence, it will be seen, the Appendix has been consi- 
derably enlarged. 

By means of these arrangements, the leading parts of the 
Grammar are made to occupy nearly the same place as before, be- 
ing seldom more than one page distant from their former position. 
This revisal of the work has been gone into more thoroughly 
now, to avoid the necessity of ever hereafter making any changes j 
but no change has been made which will occasion any difficulty 
in using this edition with the other, as the parts introduced foi 
the most part belong to the Notes and Observations, very seldom 
to the leading parts. 

For further information, reference is occasionally made to the 
Analytical and Practical Grammar, in which the subjects generally 
are treated of with greater fullness, especially in Syntax, than ii 
this compend. 



nil PREFACE. 

PLAN OF THIS WORK. 



1 . In this work the leading principles, definitions, and rules, 
forming by themselves an epitome of Grammar, are printed in 
larger type, and expressed in brief, accurate, and simple language, 
bo as to be easily committed to memory. 

2. All that is necessary to fill up this outline, and with it to 
forrr a complete school grammar, is inserted in its place in smallei 
type in Observations and Remarks, not to be committed to me- 
mory, but to be studied more fully in connection with the leading 
parts, in subsequent reviews. 

3. The whole is perspicuously arranged under distinct sections 
and heads, all of which are numbered separately-, ..and now, in 
addition to this, all the paragraphs are numbered by a running 
series of numbers, rendering it easy to refer to any particular part. 

4. At the close of each part of speech, and frequently at inter- 
vals under different heads, Exercises, simple and easy, are intro- 
duced, for the purpose of rendering the pupil familiar with each 
step as he goes along, and better prepared for entering on that 
which is to follow. 

5. The leading rules of Syntax always stand at the top of the 
page-, and under each is presented, in special rules, in small 
type, or in observations and remarks in type still smaller, all that 
is necessary to complete or explain the subject of which it treats-, 
and then,under these are furnished examples of false Syntax to be 
corrected — an exercise of great importance, to render the princi- 
ples previously studied, and their use, familiar to the pupil. 

6. For the same purpose, numerous examples of false Syntax 
under all the rules are furnished at the end, promiscuously ar- 
ranged. In correcting these, it will always be proper to shew 
wherein they are wrong, mention the rule which they violate, 
and give the rule or the reason for the change made. 

7. In Analysis and Parsing, it is important that one uniform 
method, the shorter the better, provided it be accurate and full, 
should be pursued: either that here recommended, or such other 
as the teacher may prefer-, and that the rules, when repeated, be 
repeated accurately in the very words of the text. 

8. The subject of Composition, at the end of the book, will be 
a profitable study for the pupil after he has studied the grammar, 
and furnish the means of constantly applying its principles. 

By pursuing this method, the study of Grammar, instead of 
being, as it is usually considered, a dry and laborious exercise of 
memory, becomes, from the first, practical, intellectual, and in- 
teresting-, so that with but little labor, almost imperceptibly, and 
in a very short time, the pupil becomes a proficient in this im- 
portant branch of study. 



>v <~ 



L^C^^^^i 



INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Grammar — as a Science — as an Art page *} 

Parts of 1 

Questions on • 219 

PART I. — ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography, Definition of 2 

Letters, of 2 

ovllables, of; Division of words into 3 

Spelling « • • 3 

General rules for 4 

PART II. — ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology, Definition of • 7 

Words, Divisions of • 7 

Parts of 6?eech.. 8 

P'*v ■ q vvbat; Different kinds of 8 

- Wcvjw, different kinds of 8, 9 

Accidents of. 9 

Person of .9 

Gendei of 10 

Observations on • 11 

Number of. Plural, Rules for 12 

Irregular .13 

Observation.? on 15 

Case of.- 16 

^Nominative, use of. 16 

Construction of, a<? the subject 89 

As the predicate. 104 

Independent 12? 

Possessive, how formed, use of 16 

Observations on 17 

Construction of 105, 106 

Objective, use of 16 

Governed by Transitive Active Verbs 90 

By Intransitive Verbs 90 

By Prepositions • 92 

Of time, place, weight, value, &c. 92 

Parsing of, Method of 17 

Construction of, in apposition ■ 103 

D Article, Definition and use of. 18 

Construction of 128 

' Parsing of the, Method of 19 

III. A-djective, Definition of, Observations on, Numerals 19 

Comparison of, and Observations on 20 

Irregular 21 

Construction of 97 

Of the Comparative and Superlative««'«115, 116 

Parsing of the, Method of, Exercises on • • 22 

IV. Proncttj^s, Definition and division of 22 

Personal, Declension of 22 

Observations on 23 

Parsing, Method of 23 

Construction of 99 

Relative, Definition of, &c 24 

Observations on • • 25 

Parsing, Method of 26 

Construction of 101 

Imenqpulve, what; Ortfervattofia on >. 33 



X CONTENTS. 

IV. Pronouns, Adjective, Division of 27 

Possessive •• • • • • 27 

Distributive... 27 

Construction of • 97 

Demonstrative 28 

Construction of. 97, 98 

Indefinite 28 

Parsing, Method of.. 33 

V. Verb. Definition and Division of « 30 

Transitive and Intransitive, defined and distinguished"* • ••••30, 3L 

Division of, in respect of form 31 

Auxiliary, what; Observations on 32 

Inflection of • - 34 

Voice, Active and Passive defined 34 

Observations on • • • - 34 

Moods, Definition and Distinction of 35 

Observations on. • 36 

Subjunctive, Construction of 112 

Infinitive, Construction of.---v • Ill 

Tenses, Distinction and Definition of * • 37, 38 

Observations on. 39 

Construction of • • • 124 

Participles, Definition and Use of.. 41, 42 

Present Active, in a Passive sense 42 

As a Verbal Noun 43 

Construction of 109 

Number and Person of ' • • 43 

Conjugation, and Forms of.. 43, 44 

Regular, to love, Active voice, Inflection of 45 

Parsing of the, Method of • 48, 49 

Negative form of 50 

Interrogative form of • 51 

Progressive form of 55 

Passive voice, Inflection of 55-57 

Exercises on 58 

Irregular, to be, inflection of.. 52 

Exercises en 54 

Irregular, list of. ••••. • -59-64 

Defective 64 

Impersonal 65 

Exercises on 65 

Construction or Concord of, with its Nominative * 88 

With two nouns m connection 93 

taken separately.. • • • • 84 

With nominatives of different persons.. 95 

With collective nouns • 96 

VI Adverb, Definition and use of » 65 

Classification of, and Observations on 66 

Parsing of the, Method of, and Exercises on 68 

Construction of. 117 

Position of 118 

VII. Prepositions, Definition and use of... 68 

List of, and Observations on .....69 

Parsing, Method of and Exercises on 70 

Construction of.. 92 

V III. Interjections, List of, Use of, Observations on 70 

Parsing, Method of.. • 71 

Construction of • • 120 

DC. Conjunctions, Definition and Division of . • • • • * 71 

Parsing, Method of 79 

Construction of 113, 114 

Parmkg. Etymological, Definition of 72 

Specimens of TjL 75 

Rules for, antf Exercifies in» ••••• •«••••» »«7o^S5 



Parsing, Syntactical, Definmon of. 132 

Specimens of. 132-134 

PART III. — SYNTAX. 

Syntax, Definition of 86 

General Principles of, Parts of 87 

Rules of — viz. 

Bulk I. A verb must agree with its nominative.. 88 

Special rules under Rule I .....89 

n. A transitive verb in the active voice, &c 90 

Special rules under Rule n. 91 

in. Prepositions govern the objective case, &c 92 

rv. Two or more substantives singular, in connection, &c. . 93 

v. taken separately, &c 94 

vi. A verb with nominatives of different persons 95 

vii. A verb with a collective noun 96 

vm. An adjective qualifies the substantive, &c 97 

ix. When two persons or things are contrasted, &c 98 

X. Pronouns agree with the nouns, &c 99 

XI. The relative agrees with its antecedent, &c 101 

Special rules and observations under Rule xi. • • • 102 

xn. Substantives denoting the same thing, &c 103 

xni. The predicate substantive after a verb, &c. 104 

xrv. The possessive case 105 

xv. "When the present participle is used as a noun, &c 103 

xvi. The present participle with an article before it, &c»««'109 

xvn. The past participle is used after have and be, &c 110 

xviii The infinitive mood is governed, &c. Ill 

xix. The subjunctive, mood 112 

xx. Conjunctions connect words or sentences 113 

xxi. Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunctives- •••114 

xxii. Comparative degree, and the pronoun other, See 115 

xxni. Double comparatives and superlatives, &c 116 

xxiv. Adverbs modify verbs, &c. 117 

xxv. Adverbs are for the most part placed, &c. 118 

xxvi. Two negatives in the same sentence, &c -119 

xxvii. Prepositions before names of places 120 

xxvni. Certain words and phrases must be followed, &c. ••••■• 121 

xxix. In the use of verbs, &c. the order of time, &c. •••124 

xxx. When a member of a sentence refers to two different 

clauses, it should be, &c. 126 

xxxi. Case absolute. 127 

xxxii. The article A, Sec. • 128 

xxxin. An ellipsis is admissible when, &c. .••••• 130 

xxxiv An ellipsis is not allowable when, &c 131 

Syntax, Promiscuous Exercises on Rules of. 135-146 

Miscellaneous Observations 1 46 

Improper expressions corrected 150 

Punctuation, Rules for 151-157 

Abbreviations. * 158 

Paragraphs 159 

Capitals 159 

Rhetorical divisions of a discourse 160 

Composition, different kinds of, Prose • 160, 161 

Poetry 162 

Figures, viz. of Etymology 163 

Of Syntax and of Rhetoric 164 

Poetic license 166 

PART IV. PROSODY. 

Prosody, Definition of. - 169 

Elocution 168 

Versification 179 

Iambic Verse * ITS 



*") ^ tv 



CpOTCNT^. V ^ ^ ^ 

Prosody, Trochaic •*• 175 

Anapaestic. 176 

Dactylic 177 

Mixed Verses 179 

Composition, Art of. • 180 

Use of Grammar in. 181 

Law of Language 182 

Hints for correct and elegant writing 184 



APPENDIX. 
I. Grammar^ *■»•■•£ 193 

n. Classification of words •• ••••19.5 

III. The noun or substantive. • 196 

iv. Person • 197 

v. Gender of nouns 197 

vi. Case of nouns 198 

vii. The article 199 

vm. The adjective 201 

IX. Comparison of adjectives . • 201 

x. Pronouns 202 

XI. The pronoun you 20? 

xii. As not a relative 203 

XIII. The relative vjhat •* 204 

xiv. Adjective pronouns 205 

xv. The verb 207 

xvi. Division of verbs.. 208 

xvii. Moods. 208 

xviii. The subjunctive mood • 210 

xix. The participle in ins; in a passive sense 211 

xx. Two first, three last, &c 215 

xxi. First and second • ••• «»»217 



K< 



GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar is both a Science and an Art. 

2. As a Science, it investigates the principles 
of language in general. When thus used, it is 
denominated General or Universal Grammar ; 
and sometimes Comparative Grammar. 

3. As an Art, it teaches the right method of 
applying these principles to a particular language, 
so as to express our thoughts in a correct and pro- 
per manner, according to established usage. App. I 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

4. English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

5. Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

6. Orthography treats of letters and syllables , 
Etymology, of w T ords ; Syntax, of sentences ; and 
Prosody, of elocution and versification. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 1 



PART FIRST. 



§ 1. ORTHOGRAPHY.* 

7. Orthography treats of letters, and the mode 
of combining them into syllables and words. 

8. A Letter is a mark or character used to represent an ele- 
mentary sound of the human voice. 

9. There are Twenty -six letters in the English Alphabet. 

10. Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

11. A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound; and in a word or syllable may be sounded alone. The 
vowels are, a, e, i, o, w, and w and y, not before another vowel sounded 
in the same syllable. 

12. A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound; 
and in a word or syllable is never sounded alone, but always in con- 
nexion with a voweL The consonants are, b, c, d,f, g, h,j, k, I, m, 
n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x f z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the 
same syllable. 

13. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. 
Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 

14. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
Bounded-, as ou in out, oi in oil, ow in cow. 

15. An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the 
vowels is sounded •, as ou in court, oa in boat. 

16. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one soimd 
as eau in beauty. 



* Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to " the art t» 
speaking and writing a language with propriety.' ' Yet as the whole subject u 
treated more fully in the spelling-book and dictionary, a brief synopsis of its prin- 
ciples only is here given, rather as a matter of /orw, than with a view to its being 
particularly studied at this stage. The teacher may, therefore, if he thinks proper, 
pass over this part for the present, and begin with Part II. 



§ 1. ORTHOGRAPHY. 3 

SYLLABLES. 

17. A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole 
of a word, as far ; or so much of it as can be sounded 
at once, as far in far-mer. 

18. A word contains as many syllables as it has dis« 
tinct vocal sounds; as, gram-ma -ri-an. 

19. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllables; as, 
fox. 

20. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables; as, 
far-mer. 

21. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllable; as, 
pi-e-ty. 

22. A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

23. The division of words into syllables is called 
Syllabication- 

GENERAL RULE. 

24. Place together in distinct syllables, those letters 
which make up the separate parts or divisions of a 
word, as heard in its correct pronunciation. 

25. Two separate words combined as one name, are 
usually separated by a hyphen; as, rail-road, glass- 
house, bee-hive. 

26. In writing, a word of more than one syllable 
may be divided at the end of a line ; but a monosyllable, 
or a syllable, never. 

§ 2. SPELLING. 

27. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by 
its proper letters. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 2 

28. The orthography of the English language is so anomalous 
and in many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired 
only by practice, and the use of the spelling-book or dictionary. 
The following rules are of a general character, though even to 
these there may be a few exceptions*. — 



GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS. 
RULE I. 

29. Monosyllables ending with /, 1 or s, preceded by 
a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, 
pass. 

Exceptions. Of, if, as, is, has, was, his, gas, yes, this, us, 
thus, pus. 

RULE II. 

30. Words ending with any consonant except/, I or 
s, do not double the final letter ; as, sit, not, up, put, 
that, in. 

Exc. Add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg^ err, inn, odd, purr. 

RULE III. 

31. Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, double that consonant before an additional 
syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; admit, 
admittance, admitted. 

Exceptions. But x and h are never doubled. 

32. But when a diphthong or double vowel precedes, 
or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant 
is not doubled ; as, boil, boiling, boiler ; wool, woolen ; 
fool, foolish ; visit, visited. 

Exceptions. In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel be- 
fore it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, con- 
trary to analogy and without necessity, double the I improperly 



§ 2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 

before an additional syllable. These are such words as travel, 
traveller, travelling, travelled* 

So also s and p are generally, though improperly, doubled in 
bias, worship, and kidnap; as Massing, worshipper, kidnapping. 
Webster, and many writers following him, in these words conform 
to the general rule. 

RULE IV. 

33. Words ending with 11 drop one I before the ter- 
minations less and ly, to prevent trebling; as, skill, 
skill ess ; full, fully; and some writers, before ness and 
ful; as, fulness, skilful. 

34. But words ending in any other double letter, 
preserve the letter double before less, ly, ness, and ful ; 
as, harmlessly, stiffly, gruffness, etc. 

rule v. 

35. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, 
change y into i before an additional letter or syllable ; 
as, spy, spies ; happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, 
carried ; fancy, fanciful. 

Exc. 1. But y is not changed before ing; as, deny, denying. 

Exc. 2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retaiu the y 
unchanged-, as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood. But lay, pay, say, 
make laid, paid, said: and day makes daily. 

RULE VI. 

36. Silent e is preserved before the terminations, 
ment, less, ly, and ful; as, paleness, peaceful, abate- 
ment, &c. 



*The words referred to are the following : Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel, carol, 
cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, embowel, enamel, 
empannel. equal, gambol, gravel grovel, handsel, hatchel. imperil, jewel, kennel, 
label, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, 
pommel, quarrel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, tram, 
aiel, travel, tunnel, unravel. 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 2 

Exceptions. Duly, truly, awful, and generally, judgment, ac- 
knowledgment, lodgment, abridgment, are excepted. Argument, 
from the Latin argumentum, is not an exception. 

BULE VII. 

37. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning 
with a vowel; as, slave, slavish; cure, curable; sense 
sensible ; lodge, lodging ; love, lovest, 

38. Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, some 
times, though improperly, retain c before able; as, blameable, etc. 

39. But words ending in ge and ce retain e before able, in order 
to preserve the soft sound of g and c; as, changeable, peaceable, 
etc. For the same reason, we have singeing and swingeing. Dye 
has dyeing, to distinguish it from dying. So also words ending 
with c hard, insert k before a syllable beginning with e or i, to 
preserve the hard sound-, as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking. 

40. The letters ie, at the end of a word, are changed into v 
before ing; as, die, dying; lie, lying, 

RULE VIII. 

41. Simple words ending in 11, when joined to other 
words, generally drop one I when they lose the accent ; 
as, awful, hopeful, handful, careful, already. 

42. But when they are under the accent, the double 
I should be retained; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell. 
But until, welcome, always, also, withal, therewithal, 
wherewithal, have single I. 

43. On the subject of this rule, however, usage is far from 
uniform : fulfil and fulfill, wilful and willful, recal and recall, 
foretel and foretell, and similar varieties are common. 

44. Other compounded words are generally spelled in the same 
manner as the simple words of which they are formed -, as, glass- 
house, mill-wright, thereby. 

45. Many words in English admit of two or more different 
modes of spelling*, as, connection, connexion; enquire, inquire; 
chemistry, chymistry, etc. In such cases, prevailing usage and 
analogy must be our guides. 



4 3 ETYMOLOGY. 



PART SECOND. 



§ 3. ETYMOLOGY. 

46. Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their de- 
rivations. 

47. Words are certain articulate sounds used 
by common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1st. Words, in respect of their Formation, are 
either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound. 

A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other 
word in the language-, as, boy, just, father. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word •, 
as, boyish, justice, fatherly. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word; as, man, house, city. 

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple 
words-, as, manhood, horseman, 

2d. Words, in respect of Form, are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of 
form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, 
number, case, person, etc., which in Grammar are usually called 
Accidents-, as, man, men; love, loves, loved. 

An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of 
fcrm-, as, good, so?ne, perhaps. 

3d. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts cf 
Speech. 



S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 4, 5 

§ 4 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

48. The Parts of Speech in the English language 
are nine ; viz., The Noun or Substantive, Article, 
Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, 
Interjection, and Conjunction. App. II. 

49. Of these, the Noun, Pronoim, and Ferby&re 
declined ; the rest are indeclinable. 

50. Note. A noun is called also a substantive. But this term, 
for convenience, is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to 
mean a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or a phrase used as a 
noun, and usually called u a substantive phrase.' 11 Thus in such 
a rule as this, c: An adjective agrees with a substantive," etc., the 
word substantive may mean a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive 
mood, or a substantive phrase. 

51. Parsing is the art of resolving a sentence 
into its elements or parts of speech, stating the 
accidents or grammatical properties of each word, 
and pointing out its relation to other words with 
which it is connected. 

52. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical. 

53. A word is parsed Etymologically by stating the class of 
words to which it belongs, with its accidents or grammatical 
properties. 

54. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the 
relation in which it stands to other words, and the rules according 
to which they are combined in phrases and sentences. 

§ 5. NOUNS. 

55. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing ; as, John, London, book. App. III. 

56. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common 



§ 6 w- ETYMOLOGY. 9 

57. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an in- 
dividual only ; as, Albany, Washington, the Hudson. 

58. A Common Noun is a name applied to al) 
things of the same sort ; as, man, chair, table, book* 

59. Remark. Proper nouns distinguish individuals of the same 
class from one another. Common nouns distinguish sorts or classes^ 
and are equally applicable to all things of the same class. 

60. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Proper nouns denoting persons, usually become common, by 
having an article prefixed; as, " He is the Cicero of his age." 

2. Common nouns become proper when personified, and also 
when used as proper names; as, Hail Liberty! The Park. 

3. Under common nouns are usually ranked, 
1st. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify 

many in the singular number; as, army, people. 

2d. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities : as, piety, wickedness , 
3d. Verbal nouns, or the names of actions, or states of being, 

as, reading) writing, sleeping. (195.) 

ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

61. To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, 
and Case. 

§ 6. PERSON. 

62. Person, in grammar, is the relation of a noun 
or pronoun to what is said in discourse. There are 
three persons ; the first, second, and third. App. IV. 

63. A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the 
speaker or writer; as, " I Paul have written it." 

64. A noun is hi the second person, when it denotes 
the person or thing addressed ; as, " Thou, God, seest 
me." — " Hail, Liberty ! " 

65. A noun is in the third person, when it denotes 
the person or thing spoken of; as, "Truth is mighty." 



10 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§7. 



I 



§ 7. GENDEE. 

66. Gender is the distinction of nouns with 
regard to Sex. There are three genders, the Mas- 
culine, Feminine, and Neuter. App. V. 

67. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, 
man, boy. 

68. Nouns denoting females are Feminine ; as, 
woman, girl 

69. Nouns denoting neither males nor females 
are Neuter ; as, book, house, field. 

70. There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes: 

1. By different words ; as, 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female 


Bachelor 


maid 


Horse 


maro 


Beau 


belle 


Husband 


wife 


Boy 


girl 


King 


queen 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Man 


woman 


Eull 


cow 


Master 


mistress 


Drake 


duck 


Nephew 


niece 


Earl 


countess 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


Hart 


roe 


Wizzard 


witch 


2. 


By a difference of termination; as, 


Abbot 


abbess 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Actor 


actress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Administrator administratrix 


Count 


countess 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Duke 


duchess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Elector 


electress 


Author (often) authoress 


Emperor 


empress 


Baron 


baroness 


Enchanter 


enchantress 



5 7. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


I 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Executor 


executrix 


Prince 


princess 


Governor 


governess 


Prior 


prioress 


Heir 


heiress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Hero 


heroine 


Protector 


protectress 


Hunter 


huntress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Host 


hostess 


Songster 


songstress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Sultan 


(sultana, or silU 
( taness 


Lion 


lioness 




Marquis 


marchioness 


Tiger 


tigress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Traitor 


traitress 


Patron 


patroness 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Peer 


peeress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Poet 


poetess 


Votary 


votaress 


Priest 


priestess 


Widower 


widow 



3. By prefixing a distinguishing word; as, 

A cock sparrow. A hen sparrow. 

A he goat. A she goat. 

A man servant. A maid servant. 

A male child. A female child. 

Male descendants. Female descendants. 



71. OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

1. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; such as 
parent, child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbor. Such are some- 
times said to he of the common gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter are converted hy a figure of 
speech into the masculine or feminine •, as when we say of the sun, 
He is setting-, of the moon, She is eclipsed; and of a ship, She sails. 

3. In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or 
not regarded, we assign the masculine gender to those distinguished 
for boldness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, etc., as the dog, 
the horse, the elephant. Thus we say, " The dog is remarkably 
various in his species." On the other hand, we assign the femi- 
nine gender to animals characterized by weakness and timidity: 
as, the hare, the cat, etc., thus, " The cat, as she beholds the 
light, draws the ball of her eye small and long." 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 8 

4, In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size, 
we frequently consider them devoid of sex. Thus, of an infant, 
we say, " It is a lovely creature j" of a cat, "It is cruel to its 
enemy. '• 

5. When the male and the female are expressed by distinct 
terms, as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has sometimes 
also a general meaning, expressing both male and female ; and is 
always to be used when the office, occupation, or profession ; and 
not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The 
feminine term is used only when the discrimination of sex is 
indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said "the Poets of 
this country are distinguished for correctness of taste," the term 

' Poet " clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry 

§ 8.' NUMBER. 

/ 

72. Number is that property of a noun by whicft 

it expresses one, or more than one. Nouns have 
two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The 
Singular denotes one ; the Plural, more than one. 

GENERAL RULE. 

73. The plural is commonly formed by adding 
&• to the singular ; as, book, books. 

SPECIAL RU|ES. 

1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural 
by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, brushes; match, 
matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

Exc. Nouns in eo, io and 3/0, and in ch sounding &, have s only; 
as, cameo, cameos-, monarch, monarchs. Also canto has cantos j 
but other nouns in after a consonant now commonly add es; as, 
grotto, grottoes •, tyro, tyroes. 

2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y into i es in 
the plural; as, lady, ladies. 



*9. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



u 



Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general rule; 
as, day, days. (35. Exc. 2.) 

3. Nouns in / or fe, change / or fe into ves in the 
plural; as, loaf, haves; life, lives. 

Exc. Dwarf, scarf, wharf-, brief, chief, grief-, kerchief, hand- 
kerchief, mischief-, gulf, turf, surf-, fife, strife-, proof, hoof, roof, 
reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns in^ have their 
plural in s; as, mwf, muffs; except staffs which has sometimes 
staves; so wharf wharves. 

EXERCISES ON NUMBER. 

Give the plural, and the rule for forming it, of — Fox, 
book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish," sex, box, coach, 
inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, 
wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, 
street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, 
glory, hope, flower, city, difficulty, distress, wolf. 

Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, 
enemy, army, vale, ant, volley, hill, sea, key, toy, 
monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf 
handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, ruff. 

Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
hills, river, scenes, stars, planets, toys, home, fancy, 
mosses, glass, state, foxes, house, prints, spoon, bears, 
lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, berries, peach ? 



§ 9. NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 

74. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural; ia 

Singular. Plural, 

Tooth teeth 

Goose geese 

Mouse mice 

Louse lice 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Woman 


women 


Child 


children 


Foot 


feet 


Ox 


oxen 



14 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1 9 



?5. Some nouns have both a regular and irregular 
form of the plural, but with different significations ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

Brother (one of the same family) orothers 

Brother (one of the same society) brethren 

Sow (an individual animal) sows 

Sow or swine (the species) swine 

Die (a small cube for gaming) dice 

Die (a stamp for coining) dies 

Index (a table of reference) indexes 

Index (a character in algebra) indices 

Penny (a coin) pennies 

Penny (a sum or value) pence 

76. Some compounds pluralize the first word; as, 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp Cousin-german cousins-german 
Court-martial courts-martial Father-in-law fathers-in-law 

77. Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their ori- 
ginal plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or on have a in the 
plural-, but those in is in the singular, change it into es in tha 
plural. The following are the most common, of which some also 
have a regular English plural-, these are marked R: 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Animalculum animalcula R Genus genera 



Antithesis 


antitheses 


Genius (a spirit)genii 


Apex 


apices 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Appendix 


appendices R 


Ignis fatuus 


ignes fatui 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Lamina 


laminse 


Automaton 


automata R 


Magus 


magi 


Axis 


axes 


Memorandum 


memoranda 


Basis 


bases 


Metamorphosis metamorphose* 


Cherub 


cherubim R 


Monsieur 


messieurs 


Crisis 


crises 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Criterion 


criteria 


Radius 


radii 


Datum 


data 


Stamen 


stamina R 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Seraph 


seraphim R 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Stratum 


strata 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Vortex 


vortices 


Encomium 


encomia R 


Virtuoso 


virtuosi 


Erratum 


errata 


Mr (master) 


Messrs (me* 


Focus 


foci 




sieurs) 



§ 10, ETYMOLOGY. 15 

78. § 10. OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER. 

1. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a 
race or family; as, the Stuarts, the Campbells; or to several 
persons of the same name-, as, the twelve Ccesars, the two Mr t 
Bells, the two Miss Browns. But without the numeral, or in 
addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and 
also when ihe names are different, we pluralize the title 5 as 
Misses Brown, Messrs. Webster and Skinner. (§ 60, Rem. 1, 2.) 

2. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things that are weighed 
or measured, are for the most part confined to the singular num- 
ber-, as, gold, meekness, temperance, bread, beer, beef, etc. Except 
when different sorts are meant-, as wines, teas, etc. 

3. Some nouns are used in the plural only-, such as annals 
antipodes, literati, credenda, minutice, banditti, data,; and things 
consisting of two parts, as bellows, scissors, pliers, tongs, lungs 
etc. ; or of more than two, as ashes, embers, entrails, clothes etc. 

Note. For the singular of literati, the expression " one of the 
literati" is used-, and bandit is used as the singular of banditti. 

4. Some nouns are alike in both numbers-, as hose, deer, sheep 
swine, trout, salmon, tench; apparatus, hiatus, series species, 
brace, dozen, head, couple, score, pair, hundred, thousand, etc. 

Note. Brace, dozen, etc., have sometimes a plural form; as 
He bought partridges in braces, and books in scores and dozens. 
Cannon, shot, and sail, are used in a plural sense. Foot, horse % 
infantry, and sometimes cavalry, meaning bodies of foot, etc. are 
construed with a plural verb. The singular of sheep, deer, etc. 
is distinguished by the article a; as, a sheep, a deer. 

5. Some words are plural in form, but in construction either 
singular or plur*al; such as amends, means, riches, pains; and the 
names of certain sciences, as mathematics, metaphysics, ethics 
'politics, optics, etc. 

Note. Means, when it points out the instrumentality of one 
agent, is construed as singular; of more than one, as plural 
Mean, in the singular form, is commonly used to signify a mid* 
die between two extremes. News is now generally construed in 
the singular number. Alms (celmeb-se, Ang. Sax.), riches (richesse, 
Fr.) are really singular, though now used commonly in a plural 
sense. Thanks is considered a plural noun, though used to de- 
note one expression of gratitude 



1(5 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 11 

EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR NOUNS AND OBSERVATIONS, etc. 

Give the plural of — Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox, 
child, father-in-law, son-in-law, brother; erratum, ra- 
dius, lamina, automaton, phenomenon, stratum, axis, 
ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, seraph. 

Of what number is — Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, 
dormice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, 
woman, child, court-martial, apparatus, minutiae, genii, 
geniuses, indices, indexes, mathematics, Matthew, John, 
James ? 

§ 11. CASES OF NOUNS. 

79- Case is the state or condition of a noun with 
respect to the other words in a sentence. App. VI. 

80. Nouns have three cases; viz.,the Nominative, 
Possessive, and Objective. 

81. The Nominative case commonly expresses that of which 
something is said or declared- as, the sun shines. See ($ 80.) 

82. The Possessive denotes possession; as, the Udifs fan. Also 
origin or fitness; as, the sun^s rays, men^s shoes. 

83. The Objective denotes the object of some action or relatron^ 
as, James assists Thomas; they live in London. 

84. The nominative and objective are alike. 

85. The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostropne 
( ' ) and s to the nominative-, as, John^s. 

86. When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by 
adding an apostrophe only. 

87. NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED*. 

Plural. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular, 


Nom. 


Lady 


Ladies 


John 


Poss. 


Lady's 


Ladies' 


John's 


Obj. 


Lady 


Ladies 


John 



Proper names generally want the plural. See 78 1 



$ 11 ETYMOLOGY. 17 

88. OBSERVATIONS OX THE POSSESSIVE. 

1. The apostrophe and s (V; are an abbreviation for is or es, the 
termination of the old English genitive: thus, u the king's crown 
was anciently written, w 'the kingis crown." 

2. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in letters of 
similar sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in 
order to avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds-, as, ;: foj 
goodness' sake-," " for conscience' sake." This, however, is sel- 
dom done, unless the word following the possessive begins with 
$: thus, we do not say, "the prince' feather;" but, u the prince's 
feather." (See An. Gr. 175). 

3. The relation expressed by the possessive case, is in general 
the same with that expressed by the word of; thus, " the rage 
of the tyrant," i; the death of the prince," are equivalent to u the 
tyrant's rage," "the prince's death." Hence when the usr oi 
the possessive would appear stiff, it is better to use the preposition 
of, or some equivalent expression instead of it-, as " the satellites 
of Jupiter," u the length of the day," " the garden wall," for 
14 Jupiter's satellites," "the day's length," " the garden's wall." 
Sometimes, however, the idea expressed by the preposition of, 
with the objective, is different from that expressed by the posses- 
sive-, thus, " a picture of the king," and " the king's picture, '* 
express different ideas: the first means " a. portrait of the king," 
the last, " a picture belonging to the king." 

PARSING THE NOUN. 

89. A noun is parsed etymologically (53) by stating its acci- 
dents, or grammatical properties-, thus, Father, a noun, mascu- 
line, in the nominative singular. App. IV. 

In this way parse all the nouns in the following exercise. 

EXERCISES ON GENDER, NUMBER AND CASE.* 

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, 
wife. hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' 
wings, echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread 
child's toy. grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's 
boots, Robert's shoe, horse, bridle. 

* Note. In the use of these exercises, it will save much time, which is verj 

2* 



IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 12. 

§ 12. THE ARTICLE. 

90. An Article is a word put before a noun, to 
show the manner in which it is used. App. VII. 

91. There Sire two articles; a or an, and the. 

92. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, be- 
cause it shews that the noun, is not limited to a 
particular person or thing; as, a king; that is, 
any king. 

93. The is called the Definite Article, because 
it shews that the noun is limited to a particular 
person or thing ; as, the king ; i. e. some particular 
king. 

94. A noun without an article, is taken in its 
widest sense ; as, Man is mortal,' i. e. All mankind: 
Or, in an indefinite sense ; as, There are men de- 
stitute of all shame, i. e. some men (§ 81). 

A noun with the before it, sometimes denotes the species; as, 
the oak, the lion. 

95. A is used before a consonant; as, a book. 

96. An is used before a vowel, or silent h ; as, an 
age, an hour. But • 

97. ^,and not an, is used before u long, and the diphthong eu y 
because these tetters have, combined with their sound, the power 
of initial y; thus, a unit, a use, a eulogy. On the other hand, 
an is used before words beginning with h sounded, when the 
accent is on the second syllable-, as, an heroic action, an historical 
account-, because the h in such words is but slightly sounded. 

important in a large school, if the pupil be taught to express all that is necessary 
in parsing these or other words, in as few words as possible, and always in the 
tame order, thus: Father, a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular. 
Mother* S, a noun, feminine, in the possessive singular. It will also be a profitable 
exercise for him to assign a reason for every part of his description, thus: bather^ 
«. noun, because the name of an object; masculine, because it denotes the male 
sex; singular, because it denotes but one; plural, fathers — Rule, "The plural is 
eommonly formed by adding r to the singular." 



§ 13. ETYMOLOGY. J 9 

Parsing. An article is parsed by stating whether definite or 
indefinite, and to what noun it belongs. 

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES. 

Prefix the indefinite article to the words, river, hope, 
army, hermit, infant, uncle, humor, usurper, hostler, 
wish, youth, umbrage, oyster, herb, thought, honor, 
elephant, husband. 

Correct what follows, and give a reason for the change. 
A inkstand, an handful, a article, a humble man, an 
ewe, a anchor, an useful book, an history, an humorous 
tale, an hedge, an union. 

§ 13. THE ADJECTIVE. 

98. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a 
noun or substantive ; as, a good boy ; a square box ; 
ten dollars. App. VTII. 

99. Note. A noun is qualified by an adjective when the object 
named is thereby described, limited or distinguished from other 
things of the same name. 

100. An adjective in the predicate may qualify a pronoun, an 
infinitive mood, or substantive clause; as, He is poor. To play is 
pleasant. That the rich are happy, is not always t?ue. 

101. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express 
the quality of other nouns-, as, gold ring, silver cup, sea water. 

102. On the contrary, adjectives are often used as nouns-, as, 
u God rewards the good, and punishes the bad.^ u The virtuous 
are the most happy. 15 Adjectives thus used are usually preceded 
by the definite article -, and when appljed to persons, are considered 
plural. (§ 40, Rule vn.) 

103. Adjectives which express number, are called Numeral 
adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and Ordinal. The 
cardinal answer the question u how many?" and are one, two, 
three, four, five, six, etc. The ordinal answer the question, 
" which of the number?" They are first, second, third, fourth. 
etc. In compound numbers, the last only has the cardinal fornv, 
as, \hix*y -second; three hundred and forty-third. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 13. 

§ 14. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

104 Adjectives have three degrees of com- 
parison; namely, the Positive, Comparative, and 
Superlative. App. IX. 

105. The Positive expresses the quality simply: the Compara~ 
tive asserts it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in 
another-, and the Superlative, in the highest or lowest degree 
compared with several; thus, Gold is heavier than silver -, it is 
the most precious of the metals. 

108. In adjectives of one syllable, the Compara- 
tive is formed by adding -er to the Positive ; and 
the Superlative, by adding -est ; as, sweet, sweeter^ 
sweetest. 

107. Adjectives of more than one syllable are 
compared by prefixing more and most to the posi- 
tive ; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous* 

108. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Dissyllables in le after a mute, are generally compared by 
c.r and est: as, able, abler, ablest (37, R. vn). Dissyllables in y 
change y into i before -er and -est-, as, happy, happier, happiest. 
But y with a vowel before it, is not changed- as, gay, gayer y 
gayest (35. Exc. 2). 

2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the 
end of the word •, as, upper, uppermost. So, undermost, foremost^ 
hindmost, utmost. 

3. When the positive ends in a simple consonant, preceded by 
a single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as, hot 7 
hotter, hottest (31. Rule in). 

4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz*. 

1. Such as denote number; as, one, two; third, fourth. 
2. -figure or shape; as, circular, square, 

3. — posture or position; as, perpendicular. 

4. Those of an absolute or superlative signification-, as, trut 
perfect, universal, chief, extreme, etc ($ 72. Obs.) 



§ 13. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



2, 



Remark. — Of these last, however, comparative and superlative 
forms are sometimes used by the best writers; as, t; The extremest 
of evils.'' — Bacon. c: The chiefest of the herdsmen." — Bible. 

5. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, etc. 
though they involve the idea of comparison, are not to be com 
eidered as in the comparative degree, any more than such adjec. 
tives as preferable, previous, etc. They neither have the form 
*t the comparative, nor are they ever construed with than aftei 
tnem, as comparatives in English commonly are. (See Syntax 
$ 71, Rulexxii). 

6. The superlative degree implying comparison, is usually 
preceded by the definite article. When preceded by the indefinite 
article, it does not imply comparison, but eminence; as, He is a 
most distinguished man." The same thing nearly is expressed by 
prefixing the adverb very, exceedingly and the like which is some- 
times called the superlative of eminence. 

7. Without implying comparison, the signification of the positive 
is sometimes lessened by the termination ish; as, white, whitish, 
black, blackish. These may properly be called diminutive adjec- 
tives. The adverb rather, expresses a small degree of the quality; 
as, rather little. 



109. 


Adjectives Compared Irregularis 


Positive, 


Comparative. 


Superlative 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad, evil or 


ill worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Much or many more 


most 


Late 


later 


latest or last 


Near 


nearer 


nearest or next 


Far 


farther 


farthest 


Fore 


former 


foremost or first 


Old 


older or elder 


oldest or eldest 


Obs Much 


is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to 


those that are 


numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to pernios 


only ; older and oldest, to either persons or things. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 15 

EXERCISES. 

Of what degree of comparison is — Sweet, kinder, 
warmest, prompt, firmest, bright, high, cold, nobler, 
broader, bravest, more pleasant, most desirable, softer? 

Compare — Great, small, rough, smooth, happy, noble, 
gay, good, little, much, worthless, ambitious, old, 3 r oung, 

110. Parsing. — An adjective is parsed by stating its degree 
comparing it (if compared), and the noun which it qualifies 5 thus. 
A good man. Good is an adjective, positive degree, compared ir- 
regularly, good, better, best, and qualifies man. 

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLE, NOUN, AND ADJECTIVE. 

Distinguish and parse as directed all the words in this exercise : 

A good man ; a kind heart ; a clear sky ; the bene- 
volent lady ; the highest hill ; a skilful artist ; an older 
companion ; man's chief concern ; a lady's lapdog ; most 
splendid talents; the liveliest disposition; a pleasant 
temper ; the raging billows ; temples magnificent ; silent 
shades ; excellent weather ; a loftier tower. 

§ 15. PRONOUNS. 

111. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun ; as, John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his 
studies. App. X. 

112. Pronouns may ue divided into four classes; 
Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

113. The personal pronouns are, I, thou, he, she^ 
it. They are thus declined : 







SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 








Nom. Poss. 


Ohj. 


Nom. Poss. 


Gltf. 


' , 


M. or F. 


I mine 


me 


We ours 


us 


t, 


M. or F. 


Thou thine 


thee 


You, (ye) yours 


you 


3; 


Masc. 


He his 


him 


They theirs 


them 


3. 


Fern. 


She hers 


her 


They theirs 


them 


S, 


Neut. 


It its 


it 


They theirs 


them 



§ 15 ETYxMOLOGY. 23 

114. OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

1. lis of the first person, and denotes the speaker. 
Thou is of the second, and denotes the person spoken to. 
He, she, and it, are of the third person, and denote the 
person or thing spoken of. So also of their plurals, 
we, you (ye), they. % 

2. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, with their 
plurals ourselves, yourselves, themselves, may be called 
Compound personal pronouns. They are used in the 
nominative and the objective case. In the nominative 
they are emphatic, and are added to their respective 
personal pronouns, or are used instead of them; as, 
"1 myself did it;" " himself shall come." In the ob- 
jective, they are reflexive, showing that the agent is 
also the object of his own act; as, "Judas went and 
hanged himself." 

3. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, 
we is frequently applied to one person. 

4. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for the 
singular and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is 
usee! only in addresses to the Deity, or any important object in 
nature •, or to mark special emphasis, or, in the language of con- 
tempt. The plural form ye is now but seldom used. (App. XI.) 

5. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the 
third person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the 
third person singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons; as, 
It is I, it is we, it is you, it is they; It was she, etc. 

6. Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written W*, 
iVs, our's, your's, theirs. 

PARSING PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

115. The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus: I, tha 
first personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), in the nominative 
singular. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, in the pos- 
sessive singular. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § lb 

EXERCISES ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Parse the following as directed above: — I, thou, we, 
rae, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its, 
theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, them, us. 

§ 16. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

1 16. A Relative Pronoun is"a word that relates 
to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun 
before it, called the antecedent ; as, " The master 
who taught us." 

117. The relative pronouns are who, which, that. 
and what (App. XII). They are alike in both num- 
bers. That and what are indeclinable, and used 
only in the nominative and objective. Who and 
which are thus declined. 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 
Nom. Who, Which. 

Poss. Whose, Whose. 

Obj. Whom, W T hich. 

118. Who is applied to persons ; as, "The boy 
who reads." 

Obs. Also to inferior animals, and things without life, when 
they are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 

119. Which is applied to inferior animals and 
things without life ; as, " The dog which barks ;" 
" The book which was lost." 

Note. Which is applied also to collective nouns expressing many 
persons as one whole ; as, " The court of Spain which ;" " the com- 
pany which." And likewise after the name of a person used 
merely as a word ; as, " The court of Queen Elizabeth, which was 
but another name for prudence and economy." 

Which was formerly applied to persons as well as things and v 
w used in the common version of the Scriptures. 



§ 16. ETYMOLOGY. 25 

120. That is often used as a relative, to prevent 
the .too frequent repetition of who or which. It is 
applied both to persons and things. § 58, Rem. 3.. 

121. What is applied to things only, and is never 
used but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This 
is what I wanted,"=the thing which I wanted. XII3 

122. OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE. 

1. Which has for its possessive whose; as, A religion ivhost 
origin is divine. Instead of whose, however, the objective with 
of before it, is more commonly used 5 as, A religion the origin 0] 
which is divine. 

2. What and which are sometimes used as adjectives 5 that is, 
they agree with a substantive following them-, as, "I know not 
by what fatality the adversaries of the measure are impelled •," 
Which things are an allegory." In this sense, which applies eithei 
to persons or things, and in meaning is equivalent to this or thcse 9 

3. Whoever, whosoever, whatever and whatsoever are also used as 
compound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and a gene- 
ral or indefinite antecedent-, as, "Whosoever committeth sin is 
the servant of sin-,*' that is " any one," or " every one who com- 
mitteth sin, etc. " " Whatsoever things are of good report-," i. e. 
u Ml things (without exception) which are of good report" (§ 59, 
Rule in-, § 63, 8). 

4. Who, and also which, and what without a substantive fol- 
lowing them, in responsive sentences, or in sentences similarly 
constructed, are properly neither relatives nor adjectives, but 
kind of indefinite pronouns. Thus, when to the question '' Win? 
is the author of that poem?" it is replied, " I do not know who is» 
its author," the word u who" is evidently not a relative-, for if it 
were, then, with the antecedent supplied, the sentence would be 
11 I do not know the person who is its author." These two 
sentences, however, are clearly not equivalent-, the former means 
" I do rot know by what person it was written-," the latter, " I 
have nc knowledge of him, I am not acquainted with him." Th* 
3 



25 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 17 

first is a direct answer to the question, the last is no answer a; 
all, but would be considered as an evasion. 

123. Parsing. — The relative is parsed by stating its gender, 
number, and case, thus 5 " The boy who reads," — Who, a relative 
pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singular, and refers to boy y 
as its antecedent. 

Note. — The gender and number of the relative, are always the 
same as those of the antecedent. 

§ 17. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

V 

124. In asking questions, who, which, and what 
are called Interrogative pronouns. 

125. As interrogatives, who is applied to persons 
only ; which and what, either to persons or things. 
What admits of no variation. 

observations. 

126. Obs. 1. In the use of the interrogatives as applied to per- 
sons, the following distinction is to be observed; namely, Who 
is used when we inquire after a person or persons unknown • as 
Who did it? Which is used when we inquire after one or more 
of a number present, or already spoken of; as, Which of them 
did it? Which of these men is the president? What is used 
when the character, or a description of a person is inquired after, 
and not the name or the individual merely; as, What is he? 

127. Obs. 2. When a denning term is added, either what or 
which may be used; as, What man, or which man among you? 

128. Obs. 3. Whether (now used as a conjunction only) waj 
formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, equivalent to which 
of the two? as, u Whether is greater, the gold, or the temple ? n 
Its place is now supplied by which. 

129. Obs. 4. In answers to questions made by these interroga* 
tives, the same words are used as responsives ; as, Who did it * 
I know not who did it. Which of them did it? I know not which 
of them did it (See $ 16, Obs. 4j. 



§ 18 ETYMOLOGY. 27 

§ 18. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

130. Adjective Pronouns are words used 
sometimes like adjectives to qualify a noun, and 
sometimes like pronouns to stand instead of nouns. 

131. Adjective pronouns are divided into four 
classes ; namely, Possessive, Distributive, Demon- 
strative, and Indefinite. 

132. The Possessive pronouns are such as de- 
note possession. They are My, thy, his, her, our> 
your, their, its own. 

133. Obs. 1. The possessive pronoun is in fact only another form 
of the possessive case of the personal pronoun, having the same 
meaning but a different construction. The possessive pronoun, 
like the adjective, is always followed by a substantive-, as, This is 
my book. The possessive case of the personal pronoun is never 
followed by a substantive, but refers to one previously expressed ; 
as, this book is mine. The possessive case of the substantive is 
used both ways 5 as this book is John's; or, this is John's book. 
(App. xiv.) 

134. Obs. 2. His and her when followed by a substantive are 
possessive pronouns •, not followed by a substantive, his is the 
possessive case of he; and her is the objective case of she. 

135. Obs. 3. Mine and thine were formerly used, before a vowel 
or the letter /i, as possessives for my and thy ; as, "Blot out all 
mine iniquities-," " Commune with thine heart." 

136. Obs. 4. Own is not used as a possessive pronoun by itself, 
but is added to the other possessive pronouns, and to the possessive 
case of nouns, to render them emphatic; as, My own book-, The 
boy's own book. The possessive pronoun with own following it, 
may stand alone, having its substantive understood; as, It is my 
own, 

137. The distributive pronouns represent objects 
as taken separately. They are Each, every, either, 
neither. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §18 

138. Obs. 1. Each denotes two tilings taken separately ; or every 
one of any number taken singly. Every denotes more than two 
things taken individually, and comprehends them all. Either means 
one of two, but not both. Neither means not either. Each other 
applies to two ; one another, to more than two. 

139. The demonstrative pronouns point out ob- 
jects definitely. They are, This and that, with 
their plurals these and those. 

140. Obs. 1. Yon, and former and latter, may be called demon- 
Etrative pronouns, as well as this and that. 

141. Obs. 2. That is sometimes a relative, sometimes a de- 
monstrative, and sometimes a conjunction. 

1. It is a relative, when it can be turned into w/io or which,- as, 
The days £/?a£ (or which) are past, are gone forever. 

2. It is a demonstrative, when it is placed before a noun, or 
refers to one at some distance from it; as, That book is new 
that is what I want. 

3. It is a conjunction when it can not be changed into who or 
which, but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end; as, 
He was so proud, that he was universally despised: He answered, 
that he never was so happy as now. Live well, that you may be 
happy. 

142. The indefinite pronouns denote persons or 
things indefinitely. They are, None, any, all, such, 
whole, some, both, one, other. The two last are 
declined like nouns. 

143. Among the indefinites may also be reckoned such words as, 
no, few, many, several, and the like; as well as the compounds, 
whoever, whatever, whichsoever, etc., and who, which, and what, in 
responsive sentences)^ 16, Obs. 4). 

144. None is used in both numbers, but it can not be joined tc 
a noun. (App. xiv.) 

145. PARSING ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Adjective Pronouns are parsed by stating the class to which 
hey belong and the word which they qualify; thus, " My book. 1 ' 
My s « posse^i ve adjective pronoun, qualifying hook. 



$ IS. ETYMOLOGY. 29 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON NOUNS, etc. 

Distinguisli and parse etymologicaily the words in the following exercise^ m 
previously directed. 

A man, he, who, which, that, his, me, mine, thine 
whose, they, hers, it, we, us, I, him, its, horse, mare, 
master, thou, theirs, thee, you, my, thy, our, your, their, 
his, her; this, these; that, those; each, every, other 
any, none, bride, daughter, uncle, wife's, sir, girl, madam, 
box, dog, lad; a gay lady; sweet apples; strong bulls; 
fat oxen ; a mountainous country. 

Compare — Rich, merry, furious, covetous, large, little, 
good, bad, near, wretched, rigorous, delightful, sprightly, 
spacious, splendid, gay, imprudent, pretty. 

The human mind; cold water; he, thou, she, it; 
woody mountains; the naked rock; youthful jollity; 
goodness divine ; justice severe ; this, thy, others, one ; 
a peevish boy ; hers, their strokes ; pretty girls ; his 
rapid flight; her delicate cheeks; a man who; tho 
sun that ; a bird which ; himself, themselves, itself; that 
house ; these books. 

Correct — The person which waited on us yesterday. 
The horse who rode down the man. The dog who 
was chained at the door. Those sort of trees. These 
kind of persons. The angel which appeared to Moses. 
The boys which learned their lessons so well. The 
sun who shines so bright. Those kind of amusements. 
The woman which told me the story. The messenger 
which carried the letter. The court who sat last week. 
The member which spoke last. I have brought three 
books, you may take either of them, or neither of them. 
There were twenty men, each with a spear; but nei- 
ther of them was fully armed. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 19 

§ 19. THE VEEB. 

146. A Verb is a word used to express the act, 
being, or state of its subject ; as, I write ; you are ; 
time flies ; he is loved. App. XV. 

147. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or 
declare -, that of which it affirms, is called its subject or nominative. 

148. Verbs are of two kinds; Transitive and In- 
transitive. App. XVI. 

149. A Transitive Verb expresses an act done 
by one person or thing to another; as, "James 
strikes the table." " The table is struck by James." 
It has two forms, called the Active and the Passive 
voice (§ 21). 

150. An Intransitive Verb expresses the being, 
or state of its subject, or an act not done to another ; 
as, I am, he sleeps, you run. 

151. In this division, Transitive verbs include all those which 
express an act that passes over from the actor to an object acted 
upon-, as, He loves us; We are loved by him. Intransitive verbs 
include all verbs not transitive, whether they express an action 
or not 5 as, I am, you walk, they run (See § 21, Obs. 2, 3). 

152. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can have no distinc- 
tion of voice. Their form is generally aotive-, as, I stand, I run, 
A few admit also the passive form-, as, u He is come; 1 '' "they 
are gone .•" equivalent to " He has come ;" " they have gone. f ' 

153. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and 
to capable of a passive form, viz -. 

1. By the addition of another word-, as, Intrans. I laugh; 
Trans. I laugh at; Passive, I am laughed at. 

2. By adding, as an object, a noun of similar signification-, as 
Intr. I run; Tr. I run a race: Passive, A race is run. 

3. When used causatively, to denote the causing of the act or 
state which they properly express; as, Walk your hor«a 
round the yard, i. e. Cause your horse to walk, etc. 



\ 19. ETYMOLOGY. 31 

154. Transitive verbs in the active voice, and intransitive 
verbs, being of the same form, can be distinguished only by their 
signification and construction. The following marks will enable 
the* student to make this necessary distinction with ease and cer- 
tainty. 

1st. A transitive verb in the active voice requires an object af- 
ter it to complete the sense; as, The boy studies grammar (§ 43, 
Rem. 3). An intransitive verb requires no object after it, but 
the sense is complete without it; as, He sits, you ride. 

2d. Every transitive active verb can be changed into the passive 
form-, thus, " James strikes the table,' 1 can be changed into 4t The 
table is struck by James." But the intransitive verb can not be 
so changed-, thus, I smile, can not be changed into I am smiled. 

3d. In the use of the transitive verb there are always three 
things implied ; the actor, the act, and the object acted upon ; in 
the use of the intransitive there are only two ; the subject or thing 
spoken of, and the state or action attributed to it. 

155. A transitive verb without an object is used intransi^ 
tively ; as, He reads and writes well = He is a good reader 
and writer. 

156. In respect of form, verbs are divided into 
Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 

157. A Regular verb is one that forms its Past 
tense in the Indicative active, and its Past parti- 
ciple by adding ed to the Present ; as, Present, love; 
Past, loved; Past participle, loved (37). 

158. An Irregular verb is one that does noi 
form its Past tense in the Indicative active, and 
Past participle, by adding ed to the Present ; thus, 
Present, write; Past, wrote; Past participle, writ- 
ten. 

159. A Defective verb is one in which some of 
the parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly 
Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 2 

§ 20. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

160. The Auxiliary, or helping verbs, by lh*» 
help of which verbs are principally inflected, are 
the following, which, as auxiliaries, are used only 
in the present and the past tense ; viz. 

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, mur* 

Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, ' 

The verb to be is used as an auxiliary, in all its tenses. 

161. Am, do, and have, are also principal verbs. 

162. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Let (used by some Grammarians as an auxiliary in the lm 
perative mood), is properly a transitive verb, and complete 
Ought is a defective verb, having, like must, only the presen* 
cense. 

2. Shall implies duty or obligation-, will, purpose or resolution 
may, liberty, can, ability. Of these verbs, the past tense should 
would, might, could, is very indefinite with respect to time < 
being used to express duty, purpose, liberty, and ability, some- 
times with regard to what is past, sometimes with regard to what 
is present, and sometimes with regard to what is future; thus. 
Past. He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged. 
Present. I would do it with pleasure, if I could. 

Future. If he would delay his journey a few days, I might 

(could, would or should)^ accompany him. 
In these and similar examples, the auxiliaries may be considered 
simply as denoting liberty, ability, will, or duty, without any re- 
ference to time in themselves, and that the precise time is indi- 
cated by the scope of the sentence. The same observation applies 
to must and ought, implying necessity and obligation, 

3. Would is sometimes used to denote what was customary { 
as in the examples, " He would say j" u He would desire," etc 

Thus, 

Pleased with my admiration, and the fire 
His speech struck from me, the old man would shake 
His years away, and act his young encounters ; 
Then, having showed his wounds, heH sit (him)- down. 



5 20 ETYMOLOGY. 33 

Of Will and Shall, Would and Should. 

163. Will and shall, auxiliaries in the future, sometimes express 
resolution or purpose, and sometimes simple futurity . They may 
be thus distinguished : 

RESOLUTION Or PURPOSE. 

164. Will expresses the will, purpose, resolution, or promise of 
the subject with respect to his own acts. Thus, I will go, thou 
wilt go, he will go, express the resolution,, etc. of the subject 
/, thou, he, 

165 Shall expresses the purpose, resolution, etc. not of the 
subject, but of another by whom the act is determined. Thus, 
L shall go, thou shalt go, James shall go, express the resolution, 
not of 7, thou, James, respectively, but of some other-, as, Johp 
is resolved that I shall go, etc. 

SIMPLE FUTURITY. 

166. Shall is used when a person foretels what is future in 
respect to himself; as, I think that J shall go. 

167. Will is used in the second and the third person, and shall 
in the first, when a person foretels what is future in respect to 
others; as, /think that you will go, that he will go. He thinks 
that / shall go. 

168. But after such words as if, though, provided, unless^ or 
when, while, until, after, etc., or after the relative in a restrictive 
clause, shall is used instead of will to denote futurity-, as, If he 
$htll go; When he shall appear-, All who shall subscribe 

Will and Shall interrogatively. 

169. In asking questions as to the will, purpose, resolution, or 
vroynise of the person addressed, shall is used in the first and the 
third person, and will in the second; as, Shall /go? Shall he go* 
Will you go? = Is it your purpose that / shall go, etc.? 

170. But in asking questions relative to simple futurity, shall 
is used in the first and the second person, and will in the third; 
as, Shall I arrive in time? Shall you be at home? Will the stage 
arrive soon? 

171. Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and 
will. Thfy are generally attended with a supposition-, as, Wei* 
I to run, I should soon be fatigued 



y 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 21 

172. Should is often used instead of ought, to express present 
duty or obligation; as, "We should remember the poor •," = We 
ought to remember the poor. 

173. Would is sometimes used as a principal verb for I wish; as,, 
a Would that they were gone," for "Iwish that they were gone. 1 
14 When I make a feast, I would my guests should praise it — not 
the cooks." Thus used, it is in the present tense. As a past 
tense, it implies strong negation; as, 44 Ye would none of my re* 
proof." 

§ 21. INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

174. To the inflection of verbs belong, Voices^ 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

VOICE. 

175. Voice is a particular form of the verb, 
which shows the relation of the subject, or thing 
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

176. In English the transitive yerb has two 
voices, the Active and the Passive. 

111. The Active Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acting; as, "James strikes the 
table." 

Here the verb u strikes," in the active voice, indicates that its 
subject tl James' 1 '' acts. 

178. The Passive Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acted upon ; as, " The table is struck 
by James." 

Here the verb 44 is struck," in the passive voice, indicates that 
its subject " table" is acted upon. 

179. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The transitive verb always expresses the same act, whether 
it be in the active or passive form. In both it is equally transitive, 
i. e. the act expressed by it in either form, passes over from the 



§ 22. ETYMOLOGY. 35 

person or thing acting, to the person or thing acted upon. Henee 
the same idea may be expressed witn equal propriety in both 
forms, simply by changing the object of tne active voice into the 
subject of the passive; thus, 

Actively. Ccesar conquered Gaul. 

Passively. Gaul was conquered by Caesar. 

2. The same verbs are sometimes used ic a transitive, and 
sometimes in an intransitive sense-, thus, in the phrase, Ci Charity 
thinketh no evil," think is transitive; in the phrase, ■' Think on 
me," it is intransitive. 

3. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the 
English, are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for 
which the passive will not always be a proper substitute. Thus, 
we say, "This field ploug hs well; 1 ' "These lines read smoothly-," 
u This fruit tastes bitter;" " Linen wears better than cotton." 
The idea here expressed, is quite different from that expressed by 
the passive form, " This field is well ploughed;" u These lines 
are smoothly read" Sometimes, however, the same idea is ex- 
pressed by both forms; thus, u Wheat sells readily," or "is sold 
readily at an advanced price." Expressions of this kind are usually 
made in French by the reflected verb; thus, i: Ce champ selaboure 
bien-," u Ces lignes se lisent aisement." When used in this sense, 
they may properly be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are 
never followed by an objective case. 

§ 22. MOODS.* 
f 

180. Mood is the mode or manner of expressing 

the signification of the verb. 

181. Verbs have five moods ; namely, the In- 
dicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In' 
finitive. App. XVII. 

* Explanations of the moods and tenses'of verbs, are inserted here for the sake 
of order : but it would perhaps be improper to detain the learner so long as to 
commit them to memory : He may, therefore, after getting the definition of a 
Virb, proceed to the inflection of it, without delay ; and when he comes to the 
exercises on the verbs, he can look back to the definition of verbs, moodsb 
&c , as occasion may require 



3() ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 22 

1. The Indicative mood declares the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, simply and without limitation ; 
as, He loves ; He is loved. 

% The Potential mood declares, not the fact ex- 
Dressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or the 
liberty, power, will, or obligation of the subject 
with respect to it ; as, The wind may blow ; We 
may walk or ride ; I can swim ; He would not stay ; 
Yon should obey your parents. 

3. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact 
expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as condi- 
tional, desirable, or contingent ; as, " If thy 
presence go not with us, carry us not up hence. 1 ' 
App. XVIII. 

4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits ; as, Do this ; Remember thy 
Creator ; Hear, O my people ; Go thy way for 
this time. 

5. The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a 
general manner, without any distinction of person 
or number, and commonly has to before it ; as, To 
love. 

182. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOODS. 

1. The future indicative is sometimes used potentially, i. e. the 
auxiliaries will and shall belong to the present potential, as well 
as may, or can, or must, when they express present willingness or 
obligation. In this case, the futurity implied is contingent, and 
not absolute-, as, He will do it, if properly solicited. And hence 
the corresponding would and should, as well as might and could, 
belong *o the past tense. The potential mood has no future tense, 

2. The subjunctive mood is always dependent upon, or is sub- 
joined to, another verb, expressed or understood. It is sometimes 



§ 23 ETYMOLOGY. 37 

called conjunctive, because it is usually preceded by a conjunction ; 
as, if, though, unless, etc. Sometimes it is c?Jled conditional, be- 
cause it usually expresses a condition on which something is sus- 
pended. It differs in form from the indicative, in the present 
tense only 5 in the verb to be, in the present and past. 

Note. Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive 
particle prefixed, are used subjunctively; i. e. they are used to 
express what is conditional or contingent, and with dependence 
on another verb; as, " If he sleeps (now), he will do well-," " He 
would go, if he could (go). 1 ' 

3. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the second 
person, singular and plural-, because, in commanding, exhorting, 
etc., the language of address is always used*, thus, w Let him 
love," is equivalent to, " Let thou him love-," where Let is the 
proper imperative, and love the infinitive governed by it. (Syn- 
tax, 387.) 

4. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, 
having the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive: 
and hence it is used both as the subject of another verb, and as the 
object after it. (Syntax, § 47, Rule 11. 3 and § 48, Rule 1.) / 

§ 23. TENSES OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 

183. Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

184. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past and jPu- 
ture: And an action may be represented, either as incomplete and 
continuing, or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives 
rise to six tenses, only two of which are expressed in English by 
a distinct form of the verb. The others are formed by the aid of 
auxiliary verbs, thus: 

Present $ J ^ ction continuing ; as, I love, I do love, or I am loving. 

\ Action completed, as, I have loved. 
p K Action continuing .-as. I loved. I did love, or lwas loving. 

I Action completed; as I had loved. 
Fttttttlr 5 Action continuing: as, I shall or will love 

\ Action completed; as, I shall have loved. 
4 



33 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 23 

185. The tenses in English are six, namely : the 
Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past- 
perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect 

1. The Present tense expresses what is going on 
at the present time ; as, I love you. 

2. The Present-perfect tense represents an action 
or event as completed at the present time; as, " John 
has cut his finger ;" " I have sold my horse ;" " I 
have done nothing this week/' 

3. The Past tense expresses what took place in 
past time ; as, " God said, let there be light f " The 
ship sailed when the mail arrived" 

4. The Past-perfect tense represents an action 
or event as completed at or before a certain past 
time ; as, "I had walked six miles that day;" "All 
the judges had taken their places before Sir Roger 
came." 

5. The Future tense expresses what will take 
place in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and 
your hearts shall rejoice." 

6. The Future-perfect tense intimates that acs 
action or event will be completed at or before a 
certain time yet future ; as, " I shall have got my 
lesson before ten o'clock to-niorrow." 

Note. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary are called 
Simple tenses-, those with an auxiliary, are called Compound 
tenses. In the common form of the verb, the simple tenses are the 
Present and Past Indicative and Subjunctive, Active-, all the other 
Uuises are compound ^ 



§ 24. ETYMOLOGY. 39 

186. § 24. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 

1. The Present tense in the simple form is used as follows: 

i. It expresses the simple existence of the fact; as, Pie speaks^ 
She writes; They walk. 

2. It is used to express what is habitual or always true-, as, He 
takes snuff-, She goes to church-, /Virtue is its own reward. In 
this sense it is applied to express the fee'mgs which persons long 
since dead, or events already past usually excite in our minds -, as, 
Nero is abhorred for his cruelty-. Milton is admired for his sub- 
limity. 

3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the 
Past tense-, as, "Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and 
enters Italy with five thousand men. 11 (552.5). 

4. It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense, in 
speaking of authors long since dead, when reference is made to 
their works which still exist-, as, :i Moses tells us who were the 
descendants of Abraham-, 11 " Virgil imitates Homer*," instead of 
ci has told," u has imitated." 

5. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soon as, 
after, and the like, it expresses the relative time of a future action* 
as, When he comes, he will be welcome-, As soon as the Post 
arrives, the letters will be distributed. 

II. The Present-perfect — In the use of this tense, it matters 
not how long ago the act referred to may have been performed, if 
it were in a period reaching to and embracing the present, or a 
part of which is not yet past-, as, " Many discoveries in the arts 
have been made since the days of Bacon 11 (that is, in the period 
reaching from that time to the present). On the other hand, if 
the time of an act mentioned is past, and does not include the pre- 
sent, this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. 
Thus, we can not properly say, M I have seen your friend a mo- 
ment ago-, but " I saw your friend," etc. The following usages 
may be noticed. 

1. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through 
a period of time reaching to the present-, as, ' ; He has studied 
grammar six months" — " He has been absent [now] six years." 

2. It is used to express acts long since completed, when the re- 
ference is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished vid 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 24. 

still existing-, as, "Cicero has written orations" — u Moses has 
told us many important facts in his writings 1,1 — " Of old thou hast 
laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of 
thy hand." But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if 
the reference is to the act of finishing, and not to the present con- 
tinuance of the thing finished, this tense can not be used-, thus, 
we can not say, u Cicero has written poems," because no such 
productions now remain. Nor, " In the beginning God has crea- 
ted the heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a 
certain past time indicated by the words u In the beginning." 

3. It is used in the same manner as the present (186, I, 5), in- 
stead of the future-perfect, to represent an action, etc., as perfect 
at a future time; as, u The cock shall not crow, till thou hast 
denied me thrice." 

4. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present 
existence of that of which the verb expresses the completion-, as, 
" I have been young" — meaning, this is now finished — I am young 
no more ; that is, u I am old." 

Note. — This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite. 

III. — 1. The Past tense — The time expressed by this tense is 
regarded as entirely past, and, however near to the present, it 
does not embrace it; as, I saw your friend a moment ago" — " I 
wrote yesterday." 

2. In such expressions as "I wrote this morning" — " this week" 
— " this year" etc., the reference is to a point of time now en* 
tirely past, in these yet unfinished periods. 

3. This tense is used to express what was customary in past 
time; as, " She attended church regularly all her life." 

IV. The Past-perfect tense (Pluperfect) has the same relation to 
the Past tense that the Present-perfect has to the Present tense. It 
connects the action or event expressed by the verb with some 
point or period of time now wholly past , at or before which it was 
completed; as, then, -yesterday, last century, etc.; as " He had 
then studied grammar six months;" " He had been a soldier in 
his youth;" I had written yesterday; Many discoveries in philo- 
sophy and the arts had been made before the days of Bacon. 

V. The same general observations apply to the Future and 
Future-perfect tenses, in relation to a point or period of time yet 
future. 



§ 25 ETYMOLOGY. 41 

VI. The six tenses here enumerated are all found only in the 
indicative. The potential has only four tenses ; the subjunctive, 
one, sometimes two, in a form distinct from that of the indica- 
tive ; the imperative but one ; the infinitive two ; and the parti- 
ciple three. 

VII. The Past tenses both of the potential and the subjunctive 
mood are much less definite with respect to the time of the action 
or state expressed by the verb, than the same tenses in the indi- 
cative. For examples of this in the potential mood, see § 20 
Obs. 2. 

The Past subjunctive expresses contingency, etc., respecting 
what is past, but yet unknown, only when referring to past time 
expressed or implied; as, "Ifl saw your friend last year, I have 
forgotten it." But in connection with the potential mood, or not 
referring to past time, the Past subjunctive has this peculiarity 
of usage — it expresses a supposition with respect to something 
present, but implies a denial of the thing supposed; thus, u "If I 
had the money now. I would pay it," implies that I have it not. 
*' If he were well [now], he would go-," implying u he is sick." 
The present tense here conveys a very different idea-, thus, "If I 
have the money, I will pay it," etc. In order to express the first 
of these examples in past time, the Past-perfect must be used; 
thus, If I had had the money yesterday, I would have paid it- 

§ 25. PARTICIPLES. 

187. A Participle is a word which, as a verb, 
expresses an action or state, and, as an adjective, 
qualifies a noun ; as, " He came seeing ;" " Having 
finished our task, we may play." 

188. Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the 
verb, and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have 
signification, voice, and tense; and they perform the office of the 
latter. 

189. Verbs have three participles ; the present, 
the past, and the perfect ; as, loving, loved, having 

4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ 25 

loved, in the active voice ; and being loved, loved, 
having been loved, in the passive. 

190. The present participle in the active voice ends 
always in ing. In all verbs, it has an active signifi- 
cation, and denotes an action or state as continuing 
and progressive ; as, "James is buildings house." In 
some verbs, it has also a passive progressive significa- 
tion; as, "The house is building." App. XIX. 

191. The Present participle passive has always a 
passive signification, but it has the same difference of 
meaning with* respect to the time or state of the action 
as the present indicative passive App, XIX. 

192. The Past participle has the same form in both voices. In 
the active voice, it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive 
verbs — has always an active sense — forms, with the auxiliaries, 
the Present-perfect and Past-perfect tenses — and is never found 
but thus combined-, as, " has loved^ " had loved." etc. In the 
passive voice/il has always a passive sense, and, with the verb 
to be as an auxiliary, forms the passive voice 5 as, "He is loved 5" 
or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun-, as, " A man loved by 
all, kated by none." The difference between the active and the 
passive participle will be seen in the following examples, viz: 
Active — u He has concealed a dagger under his cloak-," Passive 
— " He has a dagger concealed under his cloak." 

193. The Perfect participle is always compound, and repre- 
sents an action or state as completed at the time referred to. P. 
has always an active sense in the active voice, and a passive 
sense in the passive 5 as, Active : " Having finished our task, 
we may play." Passive : u Our task having been finished, we 
may play." 

194. The Present participle active, and the Past 
participle passive, when separated from the idea of 
time, become adjectives, and are usually called parti- 
cipial adjectives; as, "An amusing story;" "Abound 
book." 



§ 26, 27. ETYMOLOGY. 43 

195. The participle in ing is often used as a verbal 
noun (§ 5, Obs. 3), having the nominative and objective 
cases, but not the possessive. As a verbal noun, the 
participle of a transitive verb may still retain the go- 
vernment of the verb; as, "In keeping his command- 
ments, there is a great reward :" or, it may be divested 
of it, by inserting the preposition of after it ; as, " In 
the keeping of his commandments." When of follows 
the participle, the should precede it (§ 65, R. XVI), 

196. So also the Perfect participle; as. " There is satisfaction 
in having done well" — c; His having done his duty, was after- 
ward a source of satisfaction.' 1 

§ 26. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

197. Every tense of the verb, except in the infi- 
nitive mood, has two Numbers, the singular and 
the plural ; and in each of these, three Persons. 

The First person asserts of the person speaking ; 
as, /write, we write. 

The Second, asserts of the person spoken to ; 
as, Thou* write st, ye or you write. 

The Third, asserts of the person or thing spoken 
of; as, He writes, they write. § 6. and § 15. Obs. 1. 

§ 27. CONJUGATION. 

198. The conjugation of a verb, is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several moods, 
tenses, numbers and persons, 

199. In the active voice, most verbs have two forms ; 
the Common, and the Progressive, See App. XIX, I. 1. 

I. The Common form expresses the simple existence 
of the fact; as, "He speaks," "She writes^' 
"They talk." 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR'. § 27 

2. The Progressive form represents an action as 
begun, and in progress, but not completed. It 
is formed by annexing the present participle to 
the verb "fo be," through all its moods and 
tenses; as, "I am writing," &c. (§ 30). 

200. Besides these/m the present and the past indicative, there 
is a third form, called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with 
emphasis or force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the 
auxiliary do, in the present tense, and did, in the pasf; as, " Ido 
write" — " I did write." The other tenses, and also the pro- 
gressive form and passive voice, are rendered emphatic, by pla- 
cing emphasis on the auxiliary; as, U I have written"-— u I am 
writing" — " The letter is written." 

201. To these may be added, the solemn form of the third per- 
son singular, present indicative, ending in th, or eth, instead of 
the common, ending in s or es. Thus — solemn form, loveth, hath 
loved; common, loves, has loved. Need is also used for needs. 

202. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an 
auxiliary, are called Simple tenses ; those inflected with 
an auxiliary are called Compound tenses. 

203. The principal parts of the verb are the 
Present indicative, the Past indicative, and the 
Past participle. In parsing, the mentioning of these 
parts is called conjugating the verb. Thus :~ 

Present. Past. Past paviicipU. 

Regular (157), Love, loved, loved. 

Irregular (158), Write, wrote, written. 

Conjugation of the Regular Verb "To Love." 

204. The regular transitive verb " Tolace" is 
inflected through all its moods and -tenses^ a^ fol- 
lows : 



§ 27. ETYMOLOGY. 45 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present , love. Past, loved. Past participle t toved 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 5 * 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves (or loveth). 3. They love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 

Sign, had-. 
i. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved* 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved, 

* EMPHATIC FORMS. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does or doth love 3. They do love. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I did love. L We did love 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 
3 He did love. 3 They did love 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 27 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will.— 'Inflect with each. 
If. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3, They shall love. 

FUTURE-PFRFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Signs, may have, can have,* must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might) could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with eacn, 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

*Ga* have is not used m aflirmativa sentences. 



§ 27. ETYMOLOGY. 47 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

present tense (Subjunctive form) 

Singular. Plura 1 

1 If I love. 1, if we love. 

2 If thou love. 2. if you love. 
3. If he love. 3. if they love. 

present tense (Indicative form) . 

1. 7/* I love. 1. If we love. 

2. if thou lovest. 2. if you love. 

3. If he loves (or loveth). 3. If they love. 

present-perfect tense (perfect). 

1. if I have loved. 1. If we have loved. 

2. If thou hast loved. 2. if you have loved. 

3. if he has or hath loved. 3. If they have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I loved. 1. if we loved. 

2. if thou lovedst. 2. if you loved. 

3. ./f he loved. 3. If they loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 

1. If I had loved. 1. If we had loved. 

2. if thou hadst loved. 2. if you had loved. 
%. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. If I shall or will love. 1. if we shall or will love. 

2. if thou shalt or wilt love. 2. if you shall or will love, 

3. if he shall or will love. 3. ^ they shall or will love. 

*The Present subjunctive is here given in two forms : 1st, in the subjunctive 
rx? elliptical form, used when both contingency and futurity are implied ; and 2d, 
U>z indicative form, used when contingency only, and not futurity is implied. In 
p&rsinjr, the latter should be called the " indicative used subjunctive!}'," being 
Hit indicative mood in form, and rendered subjunctive only by the conjunction 
prefixed. This is true also of the other tenses in this mood. 

The emphatic forms of the present are, If I do love, if thou do love, if he do 
fo«c, etc. j of the past, If I did love y if thou didst love, etc, as in the indicative 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 27 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE, 

l.If I shall or will have loved. I. If we shall or will have loved. 
2, If thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. If you shall or will have loved 
3.Zjfhe shall or will have loved. 3. J/" they shall or will have loved 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you 
Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, to love. Perfect, to have loved 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, loving. Past, loved. Perfect, having loved. 

EXERCISE. 
Inflect the following irregular verbs in, the same manner as the verb " to love" : 



Present, 


Past. 


Past Participle 


Go 


went 


gone 


Write 


wrote 


written 


Do 


did 


done . 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Give 


gave = 


given 


Have 


had 


had 



*05. Parsing. — A verb is parsed by stating its class (transitive 
or intransitive), its form (regular or irregular), conjugating it 
if irregular* (§ 32), and stating its tense, mood, voice, person, and 
number, and also the subject of which it affirms ; thus, u He loves 
study. Loves is a verb transitive, found in the present indica- 
tive active, third person singular, and affirms of its subject He. I 

*In parsing, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when it is regular ; 
and it is unnecessary, because its being announced to be regular sufficiently as. 
certains its principal parts. All irregular verbs should be conjugated as in § 32. 
Every teacher, however, will adopt the course which he prefers. 

t In parsing, it is important and will save much time to state every thing re- 
quired in as few words as possible, to observe always the same order, and with- 
out waiting to have every thing drawn out by questions. 



§ 27. ETYMOLOGY. 49 

EXERCISES ON THE TENSES OF VERBS, AND CASES OF IrOUNS 
AND PRONOUNS. 

Tell the tense, mood, person, and number of — They 
love ; learn you ; they had walked ; he shall have 
learned; thou hadst painted; we can gain; to form; 
to have joined ; obeys ; lovedst ; teaches ; we could 
stand; she has learned; we shall have gone; they will 
have come ; I do love ; thou didst love ; they did love. 

Parse the following words and sentences :* — We love 
him; I love you; James loves me; it amuses him; we 
shall conduct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers 
should defend their country; friends invite friends; she 
can read her lesson ; she may play a tune ; you might 
please her; thoumayst ask him; he may have betrayed 
us ; we might have diverted the children ; Tom can de- 
liver the message. 

I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has loved ; we 
tied the knot ; if we love ; if thou love ; they could have 
commanded armies ; to love ; to baptize ; to have loved : 
loved ; loving ; to survey ; having surveyed ; write a let- 
ter; read your lesson; thou hast obeyed my voice; ho- 
nour thy father; his mother teaches him; love; loved 

NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE. 

206. The teacher, if he chooses, may now acquaint the learner 
with the difference between the Nominative and Objective. 



* QUESTIONS which may be put to the pupils : — How do you know that 
love is plural? Ans. Because we, its nominative, is plural How do you know 
that love is the first person ? Ans. Because we is a pronoun of the first person, and 
the verb is always of the same number and person with the noun or pronoun 
before it. 

Many of the phrases in this page maybe converted into exercises of a different 
kind ; thus, the meaning of the sentence. We love him, may be expressed by the 
pass ve voice ; as, He is loved by us. It may also be turned into a question, or 
made a negative ; as, Do we love him ? Sec. We do not love him 

5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 28. 

When the verb is active, the Nominative acts; the Objective is 
acted upon; as, He eats apples. 

The Nominative commonly comes before the verb*, the Objective, 
after it-, as, Wesawtf/iew. In asking questions, the nominative 
follows the verb in the simple tenses, and the auxiliary in the 
compound tenses-, as, Lowest thou me? did he come? may we go? 
is it finished? 

§ 28. NEGATIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 

207. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word not after 
the simple form 5 as, Thou lovest not;" and between the auxi- 
liary and the verb in the compound form-, as, " I do not love." 
When two auxiliaries are used, it is placed between them-, as, 
" I would not have loved." 

208. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first*, 
as, " Not to love" — u Not loving." 

209. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the 
present and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more 
common. The following synopsis will show the manner of using 
the negative : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, etc. 

Pres.-pcrf, 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, etc. 

Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, etc. 

Past-perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, et . 

Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, etc. 

Fut.-pcrf. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved, 
loved. etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, etc. 

Pres.-perf. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved, 

loved. etc. 

Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, etc. 

Past-perf. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved, 
loved. etc. 



§ 28. ETYMOLOGY. 51 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Not to love . Perfect. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
i Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. 

Perfect. Not having loved. 

Interrogative form of the Verb. 

210. The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nomi- 
native^ subject, after the simple form-, as, " Lovest thou?" and 
between the auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms-, as, 
u Do I love?" When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative 
is placed between them: as, " Shall I have loved?" 

211. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, 
can not have the interrogative form. 

212. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. 
The following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the 
interrogative form : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 1. Do I love? 2. Dost thou love? etc. 

Pres.-perf 1. Have I loved? 2. Hast thou loved? etc. 

Past. 1. Did I love? 2. Didst thou love? etc. 

Past -perf I. Had I loved? 2. Hadst thou loved? etc, 

Future. 1. Shall I love? 2. Wilt thou love? etc. 

Fut.-perf. 1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved? etc 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present. 1. May I love? 2. Canst thou love? etc. 

Pres.-perf. 1. May I have loved? 2. Canst thou have loved? etc. 
Past. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love? etc. 

Past -perf. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved? 

loved? etc. 

213. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
negative either before or after the nominative-, as, " Do I not 
love?" or, " Do not I love*" 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 29. 

§ 29. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB 
" to be:' 

214. The intransitive irregular verb to be, is in- 
flected through all its moods and tenses, as follows: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, am. Past, was. Past participle, been 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT/. 
Sign, had. 

1. I had been. l\ We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 
S. He shall be. 3. They shall be 



$ 29 ETYMOLOGY. 53 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with eacb. 

1. I shall have been. L. We shall have been. 

2. Thou shall have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must.— Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Signs, may have, can have, or must have, — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have bee,n. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, would, should.— Inflect with each. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Signs, might have, could liave, would have, should have. — Inflect with »*. <a» 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have oeeik. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
present tense (Subjunctive form). 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I he. 1. if we be. 

2. if thou be. 2. if you be. 

3. If he be, 3. if they be. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 29. 

past tense (Subjunctive form) .* 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert or were, 2. If you were. 

3. ^ ne were. 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been 

EXERCISES ON THE VERB "TO BE." 

Parse the words in the following exercises. 

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
has been, we have been, hadst been, he had been, you 
have been, she has been, we were, they had been. 

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall 
be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they 
will have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 

I can be, mayst be, canst be, she may be, you may be, 
ne must be, they should be, mightst be, he would be, it 
could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have been. 

We may have been, mayst have been, they may have 
been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 
have been; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we 
were, I be. 

*The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative with a con- 
junction prefixed ; thus, If I am, If I have been, If I icas, If I had been, If 1 
shall or will be, If I shaU luuve been- 



^ 30, 31. ETYMOLOGY. 55 

Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, 
been, be, haying been, if we be, if they be, to be. 

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been 
younger; she has been happy; it had been late; we are 
old; you will be wise; it will be time; if they be thine; 
be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich ; they 
should be virtuous ; thou mightst be wiser ; they must 
have been excellent scholars; they might have been 
powerful. 

§ 30. PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

215. The Progressive form of the verb (199, 2) 
is inflected by prefixing the verb to be, through all 
its moods and tenses, to the present participle ; thus, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, etc. 

Pres.-perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, etc. 
Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, etc 

Past-perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, etc. 
Future. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, etc. 
Fut-perf. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
been writing. writing, etc. 

iNote. In this maimer, go through the other moods and tenses as in § 29. 

§ 31. PASSIVE VOICE. 

216. The Passive voice is inflected by adding 
the past participle to the auxiliary verb to be 
(214), through all its moods and tenses ; thus, 

Pres. Am loved. Past, Was loved. Past Part. Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are lovea. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §31 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have, 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign, had. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will—InQect with each. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have — Inflect with each. 

1. 1 shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been love^l 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must — Inflect with each. 
Singular, Plural, 

1. I maybe loved. 1. We maybe loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You maybe loved, 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT), 
Signs, may have, can have, must have— Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved 



$ 3L ETYMOLOGY. 57 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have — Inflect with each, 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
present tense (Subjunctive form). 





Singular, 




Plural. 


u 


If I be loved. 


1. 


If we be loved. 


2. 


If thou be loved. 


2. 


If you be loved 


3. 


If he be loved. 


3. 


If they be loved 



past TENSE (Subjunctive form).* 

l.Ifl were loved. l.Ifwe were loved. 

2. If thou wert or were loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. if he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being loved. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having been loved. 

♦The indicative form in all the tenses, is the same as the indicative with a coa* 
junction prefixed; thus, " If lam loved, If I have been loved, If I was lovta\ 
If I had been loved, If I shall or will be loved, If I shall have been loved." 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 31 

EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
Parse the words in the following- exercises : 

They are loved; we were loved; thou art loved; it 
is loved; she was loved; he has been loved; you have 
been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; 
we shall be loved; thou wilt be loved; they will be 
loved; I shall have been loved; you will have been 
loved. 

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be 
loved; they might be loved; ye would be loved; they 
should be loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst have 
been loved; it may have been loved; you might have 
been loved; if I be loved;* thou wert loved; we be 
loved; they be loved. Be thou loved; be ye loved, 
you be loved. To be loved; loved; having been loved; 
to have been loved; being loved. 

Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs, and Cases of Nouns 
and Pronouns. — Parse each zvord. 
Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma; 
he has learned his lesson ; she invited him ; your father 
may commend you; he was baptized; the minister bap- 
tized him ; we should have delivered our message ; papa 
will reprove us ; divide the apples ; the captain had com- 
manded his soldiers to pursue the enemy; Eliza divert- 
ed her brother ; a hunter killed a hare ; were I loved ; 
were we good, we should be happy ; James did write ; 
they are reading; I have been running; I did run; they 
do come; he might be doing something; they must have 
been travelling. 

*A conjunction is freouentlv to be understood here. 



$32 



ETYMOLOGY 



59 



§ 32. IRREGULAR VERBS. 
217. An Irregular verb is one that does not 
form both its past tense ia the indicative active, and 
its past participle by adding ed to the present; as, 
Am, was, been. 

218. The following list comprises nearly all the irregular verbs 
m the language. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregu- 
larly, are marked with an R. Those in italics are obsolete, of 
obsolescent, and now but little used : — 



Present. 
Abide 


Past. 
abode 


Past participle 
abode 


Am 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke, R. 


awaked 


Bake 


baked 


baked, batten 


Bear, to bring forth 
Bear, to carry 
Beat 


bore, bare 
bore, bare 
beat 


born 
borne 
beaten, beat 


Begin 
Bend 


began 
bent, R. 


begun 
bent, R. 


Bereave 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech 
Bid 


besought 
bid, bade 


besought 
bidden, bid 


Bind, un- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken, broke 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 
Build, Te- 


brought 
built, R 


brought 
built, R. 


Burn 


burnt, R 


burnt, R, 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 
Cast 


bought 
cast 


bought 
cast 


Catch 
Chide 


caught, R. 
chid 


caught, R. 
chidden, ?hH 


Choost 


chose 


chosen 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§32 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Cleave, to split 


cleft, clave 


cleft, R., ciovea 


Cleave, to adhere 


cleaved, clavi 


cleaved 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clad, R. 


clad, R 


Come, be- 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Crow- 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to challenge is 


R. dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt, R. 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do, mis- un- 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Dream 


. dreamt, R. 


dreamt, R* 


Drink 


drank 


drank, drunk' 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Fall, 6e- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forgei 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get, be- for - 


got, gat 


gotten, got 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird, be- en- 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


Give, for- mis- 


gave 


given 


Go, under- 


went 


gone 


Grave, en- H. 


graved 


graven, grayed 



$32. 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung 


hung^ 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove, R. 


hoven, R. 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold, be- with- 


held 


held, holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


knelt R. 


knelt, R. 


Knit 


knit R. 


knit, knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade, to loadf 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead, mia- 


led 


ted 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie^ to recline 


lay 


lain, lien 


Light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, R, 


Pay, re- 


paid 


paid 


Pen, to enclose 


pent, R. 


pent, R 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Read 


readj 


readj 


Rend 


rent 


rent 



61 



■ 



*Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, " The robber w«f 
hanged, but the gown was hung up.' ' 

t !>*£*? to dip y is regular. tPronounced ttd 

6 



m 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§32 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participk. 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride, 


rode, rid 


ridden, rid 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Rise, rf- 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven, R. 


Rot 


rotted 


rotten, R 


Run 


ran, run 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R. 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Seethe 


seethed, sod 


seethed, sodden 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set, be^ 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape, mis- 


shaped 


shapen, R, 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, E, 


Shear 


•sheared 


shorn, R. 


Shed 


.shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, R. 


shone, R , 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Show 


showed 


shown, R. 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


Sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow, to scatter 


sowed 


sown, R. 



§32 


ETYMOLOGY. 


6- 


Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Speak, be- 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spell 


spelt, R. 


spelt, R . 


Spend, mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R 


Spin 


spun, span 


spun 


Spit, be- 


spit, spat 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread, be- 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


Stand, with- etc. 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stride, be- 


strode, strid 


stridden, strid 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strew,* be- 


strewed 


strewed 


Strow, Re- 


strowed 


strowed, strown 


swear 


swore, sivare 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swang 


swung 


Take, be- mis- re- 


took 


taken 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore , tare 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think, be- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


thrived, throve 


thriven, R. 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 



* Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and shovj, as they are pro- 
nounced. 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§32 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R. 


Wear 


wore 


w r orn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Wet 


wet, R. 


wet, R. 


Whet 


whet, R 


whet, R. 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound, R. 


wound 


Work 


wrought, R. 


wrought, worked 


Wring 


wrung, R. 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



Past. 

should 
would 
wist 

wot 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

219. Defective verbs are those in which some 
of the parts are wanting. They are irregular, ana 
chiefly auxiliary : these are, 

Present. Past. Present 

Can could Shall 

May might Will 

Must Wis 

Ought Wit or) 

Quoth quoth Wot ) 

Beware, used only in the imperative and infinitive. 

220. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now nsed to 
signify present duty, and must, to denote present obligation or 
necessity. When they refer to past time, a change is made in the 
infinitive with which they are joined-, thus, Present, " These 
things ye ought to do; Past, " These things ye ought to have 
done." 

221. Will, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the 
second person singular. They are both without inflection in the 
third person singular. Will, as a principal verb, is regular. 

222. Wis, wist, which signifies to know, to imagine, is now 
obsolete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only 
in the infinitive, in the phrase " to wit," that is, namely 



$ 33. ETYMOLOGY. 65 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
223. Impersonal verbs are those which assert 
the existence of some action or state, but refer it 
to no particular subject. They are always in the 
third person singular, and in English are preceded 
by the pronoun it; as, "It rains;" "It hails;" "It 
behooves" &c 

224. To this class of words belong" the expressions, methinks, 
methought ; meseems, meseemed ; sometimes used for s; It seems 
to we," " It appears to me." etc. 

225. The pronoun it preceding the impersonal verb as its sub- 
ject, is the substitute of some unknown and general, or well- 
known cause, che action of which is expressed by the verb, but 
which can not, or need not, itself be named. 

EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 
Name the Past tense and Past participle of — Take, 
drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, be- 
reave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, 
go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, 
lose, pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, 
slide, smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write, weave, etc. 

§ 33. ADVERBS. 

226. An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to de- 
note some circumstance respecting it; as, "Ann 
speaks distinctly ; she is remarkably diligent, and 
reads very correctly" 

221. On th* same principle that an adverb modifies another 
adverb, it sometimes also modifies an adjunct, a phrase, or a sen- 
tence-, as, "I met your brother fab. from home;" " He will be 
here soon after mid-day y" "We shall go immediately after the 
mail arrives." 

228. The adverbs chiefly, particularly, especially, entirely, al- 
together, solely, only, merely, partly, also, likewise, too, etc. some- 
times modify nouns and pronouns ; as, " I only am escaped j TI 
lt The women also were there." 

6* 



00 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §34 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

229. Adverbs have been divided into various 
classes, according to their signification. The chief 
of these are the following: 

1. Adverbs of Manner; as, justly, bravely, softly, &c. 

2. Of Place ; as, here, there, where; hither, thence, &c. 
:;. Of Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often, never, &c. 

4. Of Direction ; as, upward, downward, forward, &c. 

5. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, verily, certainly, &c. 

6. Of Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise, &c. 

7. Of Uncertainty ; as, perhaps, peradventure, &c. 

8. or Interrogation ; as, how? why? when? where? &c. 
<). Of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, as, so, thus, &c. 

10 Of Quantity; as, much, some, little, enough, &c. 

1 1. Of Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c. 

12. Conjunctive adverbs which stand for two adjuncts, 
one of which contains a relative pronoun, and the 
oilier its antecedent; as, when = at the time at 
uihit%; haw — the manner in which, &c. They 
are how, when, inhere, while, whither, ivhence. 

230. § 84. OBSERVATIONS ON ADVERBS. 

1. The cfcief use of adverbs is to shorten discourse, by expres- 
sing in one word what would otherwise require two or more-, as, 
hsrs for ;t in this place*, 11 nobly, Tor u in a noble manner, 11 etc. 
Phrases for which an adverb is an equivalenl are called adjuncts. 
•\ adverbs of quality, and a few others, admit of comparison 
like adjectives •, as, soon, sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, most 
nobly. A few are compared irregularly- as, will, better, best, 
badly, or HI, wbrse, worst, 

Some words become adverbs by prefixing a. which signifies 

it, or on; as, afced, ashore^ afloat, aground, apart, etc. 

■t. In comparisons, the antecedents OS and so are usually 
reckoned adverbs, because they modify an adjective or another 



§ 34. ETYMOLOGY. 67 

adverb-, the corresponding as and so are adverbs also, as thry 
may be resolved into an adjunct; thus, "It is as high as Hea- 
ven-," i. e. high in the degree in which Heaven is high. 

5. The compounds of here, there, where; and hither, thither, 
whither, are all adverbs. Therefore and wherefore , sometimes 
called conjunctions, are properly adverbs also-, therefore being 
equivalent to for this reason, and wherefore equivalent to for 
which reason; as an interrogative =for what reason ? 

6. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes 
as other parts of speech-, thus, 

Much is used, 1. As an adverb; as, It is much better to give 

than to receive. 
2. As an adjective -, as, In much wisdom is much 

grief. 
3. As a noun; as, where much is given, much is 

required. 
Yesterday is used, 1. As an adverb; as, He came yesterday. 

2. As a noun; as, Yesterday is past. 

Before is used, 1. As an adverb; as, He came before the dooi 

was opened. 
- 2. As a 'preposition; as, He stood before the dooi. 

7. Circumstances of time, place, manner, etc. are often ex- 
pressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase ; 
as, in short, in fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not 
at all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by and bye, to 
and fro, etc., which, taken together, maybe parsed as adverbs, or 
by supplying the ellipsis-, thus, in a short space; in a general 
way, etc. 

8. There, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used 
as an introductory expletive to the verbs to be. to come, to appear, 
and some others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, fol- 
lows the verb-, as, "There is no doubt of the fact:" " There 
came to the beach a poor exile of Erin-, 5 ' " There appears to be 
a mistake somewhere." Sometimes, when the subject goes be- 
fore, U is placed between the subject and the verb-, as, ct A mis- 
take there is.* 1 In all such cases, there is a mere expletive. It 
adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables to vary the form of 
expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 35 

exist This will appear by omitting it in any of the above ex- 
amples, 

231. Parsing. — An abverb is parsed by stating what part of 
speech — the class to which it belongs — the word which it modi- 
fies — its derivation and comparison, if derived and compared • 
thus, " He speaks fluently" Fluently, an adverb of manner, and 
modifies " speaks ;" derived from fluent, and compared more flu- 
ently, most fluently. 

EXERCISES ON ADVERBS, IRREGULAR VERBS, etc.' 
Parse the words in the following exercises. 

Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went 
away yesterday. They came to-day. They will per- 
haps buy some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. 
She sung sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. 
Mary rose up hastily. They that have enough may 
sleep soundly. Cain wickedly slew his brother. I saw 
nim long ago. He is a very good man. Sooner or later 
all must die. You read too little. They talk too much. 
James acted wisely. How many lines can you repeat ? 
You ran hastily. He speaks fluently. Then were they 
glad. He fell fast asleep. She should not hold her head 
down. The ship was driven ashore. No, indeed. They 
are all alike. Let him that is athirst drink freely. The 
oftener you read with attention, the more you will im- 
prove. 

§ 35. PREPOSITIONS. 

232. A Preposition is a word which shows the 
relation between a noun or pronoun following it, 
and some other word in the sentence ; as, Before 
honor is humility. The love of money is the root 
of all evil. Come to me. 

233. Note. Of the words related, that before the preposition 
is called the antecedent term, and that after it, the subsequent term. 



I 



§ 35 



ETYMOLOGY. 



69 



234. Words of this class are called prepositions, because they are 
usually placed before the nouns or pronouns to which they refer. 
The principal, are contained in the following 



235. 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

To be got accurately oy heart. 



About 


Below 


From 


Through 


Above 


Beneath 


In 


Throughout 


Across 


Beside 


Into 


Till, until 


After 


Besides 


Notwithstanding To 


Against 


Between 


Of 


Touchmg 


Along 


Betwixt 


Off 


Toward ] 


Amid 7 


Beyond 


On 


Towards ^ 


Amidst ) 


But 


Over 


Under 


Among ) 


By 


Out of 


Underneath 


Amongst ) 


Concerning Past 


Unto 


Around 


Down 


Regarding 


Up 


At 


During 


Respecting 


Upon 


Athwart 


Except 


Round 


With 


Before 


Excepting 


Save 


Within 


Behind 


For 


Since 


"Without 



236. OBSERVATIONS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Every preposition requires an objective case after it. When 
a preposition has not a subsequent term or object, it becomes an 
adverb; as, He rides about. But in such phrases as, cast up, hold 
out, fall on. the words up, out. on, must be considered each as a 
part of the verb, rather than as a preposition or an adverb. 

2. Certain words are used sometimes as prepositions, and some- 
times as adverbs; as, till, until, after, before, etc. 

3. Such words as near, nigh, like, etc., sometimes ranked as 
prepositions, are more properly adjectives or adverbs, and the ob- 
jective case alter them governed by to understood •, as, Near (to) 
the house 

4. Inseparable prepositions are certain particles never found by 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 36. 

themselves, but always in composition with another word. Those 
purely English are a, be, fore, mis, un. 

237. Parsing. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of 
speech, and between what words it shows the relation-, thus, 
a The waters of Jordan.'' 1 Of is a preposition, and shows the 
relation between Jordan the antecedent, and waters the subse- 
quent term. 

EXERCISES CONTAINING PREPOSITIONS. 

Parse the words in the following exercises. 

He went to town. His father resides in the country. 
He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in the street. 
They divided the inheritance among them. All rivers 
flow into the ocean. He was travelling towards Rome 
when they met him at Milan, without a single atten- 
dant. The coach was upset between Bristol and Lon- 
don on Wednesday last. 

§ 36. INTERJECTIONS. 

238. An Interjection is a word used in excla- 
mations to express an emotion of the mind ; as, 
" Oh ! what a sight is here !" " Well done P % 

Note. An interjection has no grammatical connection with 
the other words in a sentence. 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 
Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone ! 
hark! ho! ha! he! hail! halloo! hum! hush! huzza! 
hist ! hey-dey ! lo ! 0! Oh ! strange ! brave! 
pshaw! see! well-a-day! &c. 

239. OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Many words denominated interjections, are in fact nouns or 
verbs, employed in the rapidity of thought and expression occa- 
sioned by strong emotion, to denote what would otherwise re- 
quire more words to express, as Adieu! for " I commend you to 



§ 37 ETYMOLOGY. 71 

God- 11 Strange! for " that is strange-," Welcome! for " you are 
welcome;" and hence any word or phrase may become an inter- 
jection, or be used as such, when it is expressed witn emotion, 
and in an unconnected manner ; as, What ! Ungrateful creature ! 
Shocking! 

2. O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be 
prefixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address-, as, u 
virtue! How amiable thou art." Oh! is used detached from the 
word, with a point of exclamation after it. It implies an emotion 
of pain, sorrow, or surprise-, as, " Oh! what a sight is here." 

240". Parsing. — An interjection is parsed by stating the part 
of speech, why, and the emotion expressed-, as, u Oh! what a 
sight is here!" Oh! — an interjection, because used as an excla 
mation, and expresses an emotion of pain. 

§ 37. CONJUNCTIONS. 

241. A Conjunction is a word which connects 
words or sentences; as, "You and I must study; 
but he may go and play. 

242. Conjunctions are divided into two classes ; 
Copulative and Disjunctive. 

243. Copulative Conjunctions connect things that 
are to be considered together*. They are both, and, 
as, because, for, if, since, that. 

244. Disjunctive Conjunctions connect things 
that are to be considered separately. The princi- 
pal are Either, or, neither, nor, than, though, al- 
though, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, not 
withstanding, save, provided, whereas. 

245. And is the principal copulative, and denotes addition. It 
has frequently both as a related antecedent conjunction in the pre- 
ceding member. The other copulatives denote condition, sup- 
position, etc. 

246. Or and nor are the principal disjunctive conjunctions, and 
sometimes have, for their related antecedent conjunctions, either 
and neither respectively. The other disjunctives denote conccssio4i 
doubt, opposition, etc. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 3%. 

247. It will be seen from the list above that the same woid 
varies in its character according to its application: e. g. both, either, 
neither, are sometimes adjective pronouns and sometimes conjunc- 
tions -, that is sometimes an adjective pronoun, sometimes a rela- 
tive pronoun (§, 18,141 obs. 2), as well as a conjunction-, for, 
except, are sometimes prepositions: since and but are sometimes 
conjunctions, sometimes prepositions, and sometimes adverbs: 
thus, u since (conj.) we must part, let us do it peaceably-," " 1 
have not seen him since (prep.) that time-," u Our friendship 
commenced long since" (adv.)- u He is poor, but honest" (conj.); 
44 All but one" (prep.)-, " He has but just enough" (adv.). 

248. Parsing. A conjunction is parsed by stating the part oi 
speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it connects-, 
as, " He and I must go, but you may stay. And — a copulative 
conjunction, connecting the words He and I; but — a disjunctive 
conjunction, connecting the sentences, u He and I must go," and 
u you may stay." 

§ 38. ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 

249. Etymological parsing consists in stating 
the part of speech to which each word belongs, 
with its accidents or grammatical properties. 

250. Accuracy and expertness in this exercise are an important 
acquisition, and can not be fully acquired without a knowledge of 
the rules of syntax. At the same time, in order to study the rules 
of syntax with advantage, and especially to be able readily to 
correct the exercises in false syntax, under each rule, considerable 
proficiency in parsing is necessary, The pupil must be able at 
once to distinguish the different parts of speech from each other, 
and to tell the different cases, moods, tenses, etc. in which a word is 
found, and to change it readily into any other that may be required. 

In proceeding to parse a sentence, it is necessary for the pupil 
in the first place to understand it. When he understands a sen- 
tence, and also the definition of the different parts of speech given 
fc. the grammar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining 
to which of them each word belongs-, i. e. which of the words are 
"names of things," or no uns; which "express the quality of 
things," or. "affirm any thing concerning them," that is to say, 



§ 38 ETYxMOLOGY. 73 

which words are adjectives, and which are verbs. This method 
will exercise the discriminating powers of the pupil better, en- 
gage his attention much more, and on trial be found much more 
easy and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary on every 
occasion : a plan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and which, 
instead of leading him to exercise his own powers, and depend 
on his own resources, will lead him to habits of slavish depend- 
ence on the authority of others. 

251. The following General principles should be remembered 
and steadily kept in view in parsing every sentence, viz: 

1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or 
pronoun expressed or understood. 

2. The subject of a finite verb, i. e. the person 
or thing spoken of, is always in the nominative, and 
is said to be the " nominative to the verb." 

3. Every noun or pronoun in the nominative 
case (except the nominative independent, § 80, and 
the predicate-nominative, § 61), is the subject of a 
verb, expressed or understood, i. e. it is that of 
which the verb affirms. 

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, oi 
subjunctive mood, has a nominative or subject ex- 
pressed or understood, i. e. it has something of 
which it affirms. 

5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and 
every preposition, governs a noun or pronoun in 
the objective case ; and every objective case is 
governed by a transitive active verb, or preposition. 

Note. — Instead of a noun or pronoun, the object of a transitive 
active verb is sometimes an infinitive mood or substantive clause. 
(286.) 

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed 

by a verb, adjective, or noun ; and sometimes it 

stands after the coni unction than or as. See 6 67. 
7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 39 

252. § 39. SPECIMENS OF PAKSING.* 
"Truth and candor possess a powerful charm." 

Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be analyzed to the 
young pupil by such questions as the following, viz: What is 
spoken of in this sentence? Truth and candor What is said of 
them? They possess some thing. What do they possess? A 
charm. What sort of charm do they possess? A powerful 
charm. The sentence being understood, may be parsed briefly thus : 
" Truth" A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and, 

with candor ', the subject of possess. 
" And," A copulative conjunction, connecting " truth" with 

" candor." 
" Candor" A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and, 

with truth, the subject of possess. 
" Possess," A verb transitive, in the present indicative active, 

third person plural, and affirms of truth and candor, 
u Jl," The indefinite article, belongs to charm, and shews it is 

used indefinitely. 
* Powerful," an adjective, positive degree, qualifying u charm," 

compared by more and most ; as, more powerful, most 

powerful. 
li Charm" a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, the object of 



Note.— It will also be a profitable exercise to require a reason for everything 
stated in parsing a word, as for example. Why do you say that "Truth 5 'is a noun? 
is neuter? singular? the nominative? To which questions it may be answered, 
Because it is the name of a thing — because it is without sex— denotes but owe, 
and (together with candor) is the subject or nominative of the verb " possess ;" or 
is the thing spoken of (See note p.17). This exercise should be continued till the 
pupil is able to answer all such questions on any of the parts of speech promptly 
and intelligently. 

*In parsing, the pupil should be required to state every thing belonging to the 
etymology of each word in as few words as possible, and without waiting to 
have every thing drawn from him by questions from his teacher ; this will savo 
much time and unnecessary labor. It will also contribute much to order and 
precision, to have every thing respecting each part of speech expressed always 
in the same order and in the same language. These specimens are given as an 
example. 



§ 39 ETYMOLOGY. 75 



All the parts of speech are contained in the fol- 
lowing st?tnza. 

O how stupendous was the power 

That raised me with a word ; 
And every day, and every hour, 
I lean upon the Lord. 

O. . » Interjection, expressing admiration. 

how . An adverb of manner, modifying stupendous. 

stupendous, An adjective, positive degree, qualifying power, com- 
pared by more and most. 

was A verb intransitive, irregular, am, was^ been, in the 

past indicative active, and affirms of power. 

the The definite article belonging to power, shewing it to 

be limited. 

power A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject 

of was, 

chat A relative pronoun used for which, in nominative sin- 
gular, subject of raised, and relates to power its an- 
tecedent. 

raised A verb transitive, in the past indicative active, third 

pers. singular, affirms of that its subject, for power. 

me The first personal pronoun masculine or feminine in 

the objective singular, object of raised. 

with A preposition, shewing the relation between word its 

subsequent, and raised its antecedent term. 

a The indefinite article, belongs to word, and shews it is 

not limited. 

word . ... A noun, neuter, in the obj. singular, object of with. 

and A copulative conjunction, connecting the following 

with the preceding sentence. 

every A distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying day. 

day A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, restrictive 

(§50 Sub -Rule). 

and A copulative conjunction, connecting day and hour. 

every . . . . . A distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying hour. 

hour A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, same as day 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40. 

I* ...... . The iirst personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, 

nominative singular, subject of lean, 
lean A verb intransitive, in the present indicative active 

iirst person singular, and affirms of /. 
upon .... A preposition, showing the relation between Lord, its 

subsequent, and lean, its antecedent term, 
the The definite article, belonging to Lord, and shewing 

it to be limited. 
Lord A noun, masculine, in the objective singular, object 

of upon. 

253. § 40. EXERCISES IN PARSING.* 

Rule 1. Two or more adjectives in succession, either with ar 
without a conjunction, qualify the same word; as, 

A wise and faithful servant will always study his 
master's interest. A dismal, dense, and portentous 
cloud overhangs the city. A steady, sweet, and cheerful 
temper affords great delight to its possessor. He has 
bought a fine new coat. A sober and virtuous course 
of conduct generally leads to happiness. Virtuous 
youth brings forth accomplished and flourishing man- 
hood. She had a regular and polite education. 

Rule 2. When an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally 
qualifies them both; as, 

They waited for a J?£ time and place. I am delighted 
with the sight of green woods and fields. He displayed 
great prudence and moderation. He was a man of great 
wisdom and moderation. Guard against rash temper 
and conduct. They shewed sincere respect and esteem 
for their friends. 

Rule 3. When an adjective comes after the intransitive verb 
TO be, to become, and some others, it qualifies the nominative 
of that verb; as, 

John is wise. They were temperate. The sky is 
very clear. These rivers are deep and rapid. The 

*The rules in this section are not intended to be committed to memory, but to 
be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them- 



$ 40. ETYMOLOGY. ?7 

apples will soon be ripe. We have been attentive to 
our lessons. These mountains are very high. The 
sea is tempestuous. Our friends should be dear to us, 
His behavior was entirely inconsistent. The Supreme 
being is wise and good. Their pictures and books are 
valuable. John's schemes were absurd. 

Rule 4. Whatever words the verb to be serves to unite , refer- 
ring to the same thing, must be of the same case (§ 61) ♦, as, 

Alexander is a student. Mary is a beautiful girl. 
Hope is the balm of life. Content is a great blessing, 
envy a great curse. Knowledge is power. His meat 
was locusts and wild honey. He was the life of the 
company. She will be the delight of her friends. Mil- 
ton is the prince of English poets. Shakspeare was 
a man of unbounded genius. Johnson was a powerful 
writer. Contentment is great gain. He might be a 
most happy man. I understood it to be him. I sup- 
posed it to have been them. They imagined it to be me. 

Note. It is necessary to the .application of this rule, that the words connected 
refer to the same thing. This connection is often made by other words than the 
verb to be. (See 61, Rem. 1.) 

Rule 5. Nouns and pronouns put one after another, and de- 
noting the same object, are said to be in apposition, and always 
agree in case; as, 

Alexander the coppersmith was not a friend to the 
Apostle Paul. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest 
friend. Thomson, the author of the Seasons, is a 
delightful poet. Temperance, the best preserver of 
health, should be the study of all men. He greatly 
displeased his friend Cato. We received orders from 
General Washington, commander-in-chief. Religion 
and virtue, our best support, and highest honor, confer 
on the mind principles of noble independence. 

Note. In parsing such sentences as the preceding, a relative and a verb may bo 
inserted between the words in apposition : as, Hope which is the balm, &c. My- 
self, thyself, himself, &c, often stand at a considerable distance, from the words 
with which they agree ; as, 

Thomas despatched the letter himself. They ga- 
thered the flowers in the garden themselves. Ann saw 
the transaction herself, and could not be mistaken. 

7* 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40 

Rule 6, Myself, thyself, himself, etc., often form the objectivet 
after transitive verbs, of which the words they represent are the 
subjects or nominatives. They are, in such cases, called Reflexive 
pronouns; as, 

I hurt myself. He wronged himself to oblige us. 
They will support themselves by their industry. She 
endeavored to shew herself off to advantage. We must 
confine ourselves more to our studies. They hurt 
themselves by their great anxiety. 

Rule 7. Adjectives, taken as nouns, and used in reference to 
persons, are generally of the plural number; as, 

The valiant never taste of death but once. The 
virtuous are generally the most happy. The diligent 
make most improvement^ The sincere are always es- 
teemed. The inquisitive are generally talkative. The 
dissipated are much to be pitied. The company of the 
profane should be carefully avoided. The temperate 
are generally the most healthy. 

Rule 8. Nouns and pronouns, taken in the same connection, must 
he of the same case: as, 

The master taught him and me to write. He and 
she were school-fellows. My brother and he are toler- 
able grammarians. He gave the book to John and 
Thomas. I lent my knife and pencil to one of the 
scholars. Peter and John gained the highest prizes. 
The snow and the ice have quite disappeared. Exer- 
cise and temperance are the best promoters of health. 

Rule 9. A relative generally precedes the verb that governs it; as, 

He is a friend whom I greatly respect. They whom 
luxury has corrupted, can not relish the simple plea- 
sures of life. The books which I bought yesterday, 
I have not yet received. The trees which he planted 
in the spring have all died. He has lost the friend 
whom he so much respected. The lesson which we 
have finished, has not been difficult. 

Rule 10. When both a relative and its antecedent have each a 
verb belonging to it, the relative is commonly the nominative to 
the first verb, and the antecedent to the second; as, 



§40. ETYMOLOGT. 79 

l 

He who acts wisely deserves praise. He who is a 
stranger to industry, may possess, but he can not enjoy. 
They who are born in high stations are not always the 
most happy. The man who is faithfully attached to 
religion, may be relied on with confidence. Those who 
excite envy will easily incur censure. 

Rule 11 . What, being equal to that which, or the thing which, 
may represent two cases, either both nominatives or both objectives; 
or, the one the nominative and the other the objective; as, 

This is precisely what was necessary. What can not 
be prevented, must be endured. We must not delav 
till to-morrow, what ought to be done to-day. Choose 
what is most fit ; custom will make it the most agree- 
able. Foolish men are more apt to consider what they 
have lost, than what they possess. 

Rule 12. Whoever and whosoever, used as relatives (§ 16, Obs. 
3), generally have the antecedent implied, so that they seem to stand 
as the nominative to two verbs, or as at once the objective after a verb 
or preposition, and the nominative to a succeeding verb. The same 
is the case with whatever a nd whatsoever-, as, 

Whoever told such a story, must have been misin- 
formed. Whoever is not content in poverty, would not 
be perfectly happy in the midst of plenty. Whoever 
passes his time in idleness, can make but little im- 
provement. Whatever gives pain to others, deserves 
not the name of pleasure. Whatever is worth doing 
at all, is worth doing well. 

Note. Whatever is most frequently used, as what sometimes is (§16, Obs 
2), simply to qualify a noun ; as, 

Aspire to perfection, in whatever slate of life you 
may be placed. I forgot what words he uttered. "By 
what means shall we obtain wisdom. By whatever 
arts we may attract attention, we can secure esteem 
only by amiable dispositions. 

Rule 13. Though participles never directly declare, yet they 
always imply something either done or doing, and are used in 
reference to some noun or pronoun ; as, 

Admired and applauded, he became vain. Havino 
finished our lessons, we went to play. Proceeding on 



SO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40 

his journey, he was seized with a dangerous malady. 
Being engaged at the time of my call, he had not a mo- 
ment to spend with me. Having early disgraced him- 
self, he became mean and dispirited. Knowing him to 
be my superior, I cheerfully submitted. 

Rule 14. The past participle of a few intransitive verbs is some' 
times joined to the verb to be, which gives them a passive appear- 
ance ; as, 

I am come, in compliance with your desire. If such 
maxims and practices prevail, what is become of de- 
cency and virtue ? The old house is at length fallen 
down. John is gone to London. 

Rule 15. Intransitives are often followed by prepositions, ma- 
king what are sometimes called compound transitive verbs. The 
verb and preposition may in such cases be parsed either together 
or separately in the active voice. In the passive voice, they must 
be parsed together ; as, 

He laughed at such folly. They smiled upon us in 
such a way as to inspire courage. He struck at his 
friend with great violence. He was much laughed at 
for such conduct. He was prevailed upon to go. 

Rule 16. A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle, 
without being connected in grammatical construction with any 
other words of the sentence. It is then called the nominative ab- 
solute*, as, 

The father being dead, the whole estate came into 
the hands of the eldest son. He destroyed, or won to 
what may work his utter loss, all this will soon follow. 
Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending. The 
house being built and finished, he was expected to ta,ke 
immediate possession. The sun rising, darkness flies 
away. Our work being finished, we will play. 

Rule 17. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the 
verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active 
voice; and sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have, know, 
etc.-, as, 

Let me look at your portrait. He lade me go with 
him. I heard him assert the opinion I like to sse you 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 81 

behave so well. Let him apply to his books, and then 
he will make improvement. Let us make all the haste 
in our power. I saw him ride past at great speed. I 
have observed some satirists use the term. 

Rule 18. Verbs connected by conjunctions, are usually in the 
same mood and tense; but in the compound tenses the sign is often 
used with the first only, and understood with the rest; as, 

He can neither read nor write. He shall no longer 
tease and vex me as he has done. He commanded them 
that they should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait 
for the promise of the father. His diligence should have 
been commended and rewarded. Every mind, in its 
present state, is obliged to receive information, and 
execute its purposes, by the intervention of the body. 
Fame can not spread wide, or endure long, that is not 
rooted in nature, and matured by art. 

Rule 19. Nouns and pronouns are often governed by a preposi- 
;ion understood ; and nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure, 
are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a governing word 
(307) ; as, 

He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair. 
Will you lend me your knife. It is not time yet to go 
home. He returned home at a very inconvenient sea- 
son. He travelled on foot last summer as far as Lorn 
don. He was in Paris last month. He visited Rome 
last year in the spring. They remained twenty-four 
days at Naples, and walked twelve miles each day. 
I sent him the despatches some time ago. A wall ten 
feet high. It is worth a dollar. 

Rule 20. The conjunctions than and as, implying comparison, 
kave the same case after them as before them, and the latter cast 
has the same construction as the former; as, 

He has more books than my brother (has). Mary 
is not so handsome as her sister (is). They respect 
him more than (they respect) us. James is not so dili- 
gent as Thomas. They are much greater gainers than 
I by this unexpected event. Though she is not so 
learned as he, she is as much beloved and respected. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40. 

Rule 21. The class of words or part of speech to which a word 
belongs, depends often on its application; as, 

Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We 
may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion, 
is easier than to calm it. Better is a little with con- 
tent, than a great deal with anxiety. The gay and 
dissolute think little of the miseries which are stealing 
softly after them. A little attention will rectify some 
errors. Though He is out of danger, he is still afraid. 
He laboured to still the tumult. Still waters are com 
monly deepest. Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt 
often casts a damp over our sprightiiest hours. Soft 
bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. 
Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable. 
They are young., and must suspend their judgment yet 
a while. Many persons are better than we suppose 
them to be. The few and the many have their pre- 
possessions. Few days pass without some clouds. 
Much money is corrupting. Think much and speak 
little. He has seen much of the world, and been much 
caressed. His years are more than hers, but he has 
not more knowledge. The more we are blessed, the 
more grateful we should be. The desire of getting 
more is rarely satisfied. He has equal knowledge, but 
inferior judgment. She is his inferior in sense, but his 
ecmal in prudence. 

( Rule 22. Do, h.ave 9 and be, are principal verbs when used by 
themselves, but auxiliaries when connected with other verbs; as, 

He does all in his power to gain esteem. He did his 
utmost to please his friend. We must do nothing that 
will sully our reputation. She has a strong claim to 
our respect. They had not the slightest intention to 
wound our feelings. The man who has no sense of 
religion, is little to be trusted. He who does the most 
good, has 1 the most pleasure. They were not in the 
most prosperous circumstances,when we last saw them. 
He does not write so well as he reads. We did not 
stay with him more than a month. True wisdom doe? 
not inspire pride. The butler did not remember Jo- 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 83 

seph.) Did lie send the book, as he was desired? Do 
•they make much progress in their studies ? Have they 
ascertained the person who gave the information? 
They had not determined what course to take. We 
are surprised at the news. 

Rule 23. An infinitive, a participle, or a member of a sentence, 
which may be called a substantive phrase, is often the nominative 
to a verb, or the objective after a transitive verb or preposition; as, 

1. Nominative. To study hard, is the best way to im- 
prove. To endure misfortune with resignation, is the 
characteristic of a great mind. To advise the ignorant, 
relieve the needy and comfort the distressed, are duties 
incumbent on all. ^John's being from home occasioned 
the delay. His having neglected opportunities of im- 
provement, was the cause of his disgrace. The im- 
planting of right principles in the breast of the young, 
is important both to themselves and to society. To 
assist a friend in such circumstances, was a duty. 

2. Objective. He that knows how to do good, and 
does it not, is without excuse. He will regret his 
having neglected opportunities of improvement, when 
it may be too late. He declared that nothing could 
give him greater pleasure. Of making many books 
there is no end. 

Obs. 1. When a substantive phrase is governed by a verb or preposition, this 
regimen does not affect the case of individual nouns or pronouns in that phrase, 
twit leaves them subject to the influence of other words within the phrase itself. 

Obs. 2. In sentences of this kind, the infinitive mood or participle is often 
used for the name of the action, or state, or affection expressed by the verb ; as, 
" to profess (professing) regard, and to act {acting) differently, marks a base mind." 
1 Here it is to be observed that the infinitive and participle are really abstract 
nouns perfectly indefinite in their application, there being no particular subject to 
which the action may be referred. 

If the infinitive or participle of the verb to be, or of a passive verb of naming, 
&c. (6 61, R. i ), is used in this way without a definite subject, the substantive 
which follows it as a predicate receives the same indefinite character : it is nei- 
ther the subject of a verb, nor is under the regimen of any word.; thus, " His be- 
ing an expert dancer, does not entitle him to our regard. ; ' This will be allowed 
to be a correct English sentence, complete in itself, and requiring nothing to be 
supplied. The phrase " being an expert dancer^ is tlie subject of the verb 
" does entitle;" but the word ; ' dancer" in that phrase is neither the subject of 
any verb, nor is governed by any word in the sentence. Of this kind are all such 
expressions as the following: ''It is an honor to be the author of such a work.'- 
' To be virtuous is to be happy" " To be surety for a stranger is dangerous.' 
** Not to know what happened before you were born, is to be always a child." 
u The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither attempt to palli- 
ate or detiv" (.Pit*). 4i He wa« not sure of its being I." u Its being he, needs 
timxe no ditteronct m your determination. 



Si ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §40 

In such examples, whether the phrase be in the nominative or objective case, 

I. e. whether it be the subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive verb or pre. 

position, the word following the infinitive or participle as a predicate, is properly 

: red i cat e -nominative. Al' such phrases are only abridged propositions 

r hich the affirmation is dropped, and the fact is assumed; thus, "He is a 

tudgp,'* asserts a fact. " His being a judge," or, " to be a judge," assumes it. 

In all these examples the wavd judge is the predicate-nominative. In parsing 
such phrases, the words may be taken separately, or the whole phrase may be 
parsed as one word (§ 61, Rem. 2). See also Analytical and Practical Gram* 
mar, 583-24, with references. The following also are examples. 

He had the honour of being a director for life. By 
being a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in 
his profession. Many benefits result to men from being 
wise and temperate (men). 

Rule 24. The pronoun it often refers to persons (§ 15, Obs. 5) 
or to an infinitive or clause coming after /"as, 

It is John that is to blame. It was I that wrote the 
letter. It is the duty of all to improve. It is the bu- 
siness of every man, to prepare for death. It was re- 
served for Newton, to discover the law of gravitation. 
It is easy to form good resolutions, but difficult to put 
them in practice. It is incumbent on the young 3 to love 
and honour their parents. 

Rule 25. Words, especially in poetry, are often much trans 
posed; as, 

Great is Diana of the Ephesians. On yourself de- 
pend for aid. Happy the man who puts his trust in 
his maker. Of night the gloom was dark and dense. 

Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 

No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets.* 

A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

When first thy sire to send on earth 

Virtue, his darling child, designed. 

On flattering appearances put no reliance. 

He with viny crown advancing, 

First to the lively pipe his hand addressed. 

Grieved though thou art, forbear the rash design. 
Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 
Orion's dog, the year when Autumn weighs. 



§ 41 ETYMOLOGY. 85 

) 41. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Tjle world was made by a Supreme Being. He who 
made it, now preserves and governs it. Nothing hap- 
pens without his permission. He sees all our actions, 
and hears all our words. The thoughts of the heart 
are known to him. In him we live, he gave us life, and 
without him we can not breathe. Wherever we are, 
God is with us. When we sit in the house, God is 
there ; and when we walk by the way, he is at our 
right hand. He is a spirit, and fills heaven and earth 
with his presence. 

Demosthenes, who was born at Athens, was a very 
famous orator. He acquired the art of speaking by 
great labor and study. By nature he had not a good 
voice, and could not rightly pronounce some words. 
That he might learn to speak distinctly, he put small 
round pebbles in his mouth while he spoke, in order to 
cure his defect. J^te used to shut jfcimself up in his 
chamber; and to study a whole month "together. He 
often went to the shore, and pronounced his orations 
to the waves, that he might be better able to endure 
the noise and clamor of the people. He made many 
orations both on private and public occasions ; but he 
used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Ma- 
cedon; and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athe- 
nians to make war against him. 

The mimic thrush, or mocking bird, is about the size 
of a blackbird, but somewhat more slender. The plu- 
mage is grey, but paler on the under parts than above. 

This capricious little mimic seems to have a singular 
pleasure in archly leading other birds astray. He is 
said at one time to allure the smaller birds with the 
call of their mates ; and when these come near, to ter- 
rify them with the scream of the eagle. There is 
scarcely a bird of the forest, that is not at some time 
deceived by his call. 

Note, For additional exercises in parsing, any simple correct writer mav 
be used. 

8 



PART THIRD. 



§ 43. SYNTAX. 

254 Syntax is that part of Grammar which 
treats of the proper arrangement and connection 
of words in a sentence. 

255. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes com- 
plete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

256. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but 
not making complete sense*, as, In truth; to be plain with yon, 

257. Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 

258. A Simple sentence has but one subject and one finite verb, 
i. e. a verb not in the infinitive or participles-, as, Life is short. 

259. A Compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
tences combined-, as, Life, which is short, should be well employed. 

260. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject 
and the predicate. 

261. The subject is that of which something is affirmed-, as, 
Snow is white-. John reads. 

262. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject-, as^ 
Snow is white: John reads. 

263. The predicate properly consists of two parte — the attribute 
affirmed of the subject, and the copula by which the affirmation is 
made. Thus in the first example, is white is the predicate, of 
which white is the attribute, and is, the copula* 

264. The attribute and copula are generally expressed by one 
word, which in that case must always be a verb, as in the second 
example-, John reads = John is reading. Hence, 

265. The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a 
preposition with its case, or an adverb j also an infinitive, or clause 
of a sentence as an attribute, together with the copula by which 
it is connected with, and affirmed of the subject 5 or it may be a 
verb, which includes in itself both attribute and copula. 

266. Both subject and predicate may each be attended by other 
words called adjuncts, which serve to modify or restrict the 
meaning of the word with which they stand connected-, as, u An 



§ 44, 45- syntax. 87 

inordinate desire of admiration often produces a contemptible levity 
of deportment." 

267. The subject without an adjunct, is called the Grammatical 
subject; with its adjunct, it is called tne Logical subject, 

268. The predicate without an adjunct, is called the Gramma- 
tical predicate; with its adjunct, it is called tne Logical predicate^ 

269. When a compound sentence is so trained that the meaning 
is suspended till the whole be finished, it is called a Period, 

270. § 44. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence, there must be a verb and a no- 
minative or subject, expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or par 
ticiple, must have a substantive expressed or understood, 

3. Every subject-nominative has its own verb ex- 
pressed or understood. 

4. Every verb [except in the infinitive and participles] 
has its own nominative expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by a substan- 
tive [50], denoting the thing possessed. 

6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive 
verb in the active voice, or preposition [Exc, See 307], 

7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an 
adjective or substantive [For Exc. See § 67]. 

§ 45. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

271. The Rules of Syntax maf ail be included under 
three heads, Concord, Government, and Position. 

272. Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another in gender, number, case, or person. 

273. Government is that power winch one word has 
in directing the mood, tense or ca.se of another word. 

274. Position means the place which a word occu- 
pies in a sentence. 

275. In the English language, which has but few inflections 
the meaning of a sentence depends much on its arrangement. 



83 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 46. 

27G. § 46. Rule I. A Verb must agree with it a 
nominative in number and person ; as, Thcu read- 
est, He reads, We read. 

277. Rem. 1. The nominative to a verb is known by putting the question Who? 
or What? with the verb. The answer to the question will be the nominative; 
as, " I read." AVho reads? Ans. /. 

273. Rem 2. Under this rule the General Principles § 44, 3, 4, must be care- 
I illy observed. For, as follows, as concerns, as appears, dec. See § 86, 3. 

EXERCISES. 

I loves reading. A soft answer turn away wrath. 
We is but of yesterday, and knows nothing. The days 
of man is but as grass. Thou sees how little has been 
done. He need not proceed in such haste. He dare 
not act otherwise. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty 
pounds of Hour. A variety of pleasing objects charm 
the eye. So much both of ability and merit are seldom 
found. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight 
some persons. A judicious arrangement of studies fa- 
cilitate improvement. A few pangs of conscience now 
and then interrupts his pleasure, and whispers to him 
that he once had better thoughts. There was more 
impostors than one. What signifies good opinions, when 
our practice is bad? To these precepts are subjoined 
a copious selection of rules and maxims. 

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 
The number of our days are with thee. There re- 
mains two points to be considered. There is in fact no 
impersonal verbs in any language. I have considered 
what have been said on both sides. Great pains has 
been taken to make this work as useful as possible. 
In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 

In order to exercise the judgment of the pupil, as well as to show that he under. 
itands ihe rule, he may be required to assign a reason for the changes made in 
correcting the exercises under this and the following rules. If well versed in 
parsing, this may be done without loss of time, even in a large class, by directing 
birn to state the reason always, without waiting to be asked for it. Thus in ih& 
preceding exercises, "Loves" should be "love," because "J" is the 1st per* 
sing. "Turn" should be "111™*," because "answer" is the 3d per*, sing. &c 



$ 47 SYNTAX. 89 

§ 47 Special rules and observations under rule i - 

279. Rule I. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative, 
as, He and she are of the same age: not, Him and her. 

280. Rule II. The Infinitive mood or part of a sentence^ often 
used as the nominative to a verb; as, To play is pleasant-, Hii 
being at enmity with Ccesar, was the cause of perpetual discord. 

281. Rule III. A noun singular used for a plural, is joined to a 
-plural verb ; as, Ten sail of the line were seen at a distance. 
$ 10, 4,note.) 

2S2. Note. Nouns plural in form, but singular in signification, may be joined 
with either a singular or plural verb. § 10, 5. 

283. Rule IV. A noun and its pronoun should never be used 
as a nominative to the same verb; as, The king is just-, not, the 
king, he is just. Except that himself, herself, etc. are joined witb 
a noun or pronoun, rendering it emphatic. § 15, Obs. 2. 

284. Rule V. When the verb to be stands between a singular 
and a plural nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or the one. 
which is more naturally the subject of it ; as, The wages of sin 
is death. 

EXERCISES ON PRECEDING RULES. 

I. Him and I are able to do it. You and us enjoy 
many privileges. I thought you and them had become 
friends. If you were here, you would find three or four, 
whom you would say pass their time very agreeably. 

II. To live soberly, righteously and godly are requi- 
red of all men. To do to others as we would that they 
should do to us, constitute the great principle of virtue. 

III. Forty head of cattle was grazing in yonder mea- 
dow. Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for a dollar. 

IV. Simple and innocent pleasures they alone are 
durable. My banks they are furnished with bees. This 
rule if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would 
have wanted a great deal of that incense which has 
been offered to him. John, he said so, and Thomas, 
he said so, and the rest of them, they all said so. 

V. A great cause of the low state of industry was 
the restraints put upon it. His meat were locusts and 
wild honey. The crown of virtue is peace and honour. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 48. 

285. § 48. Rule II. A transitive verb, in the 
active voice, governs the objective case; as, We 
love him. He loves us. Whom did they send? 

286. S. Rule I. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, at 
well as a noun or pronoun, may be the object of a transitive aciiv( 
verb / as, Boys love to play ; I wish that they were ivise. 

2S7. S. Rule II. An intransitive verb used transitively (153). 
governs the objective case; as, '* Let us run the race." 

288. S. Rule III. Verbs signifying to name, choose, appoini 
and the like, govern two objectives; as, they named him John, 

2S9. Under S. Rule II, (287), may be classed such expressions as the follow- 
ing: " The brooks ran nectar." "The trees wept gums and balm." 

290. Rem. 1. The participle, being a part of the verb, governs the same case 

291. Rem 2. When the objective is a relative or an interrogative, it comes be- 
fore the verb that governs it. 

292. Rem. 3. A transitive verb in the active voice, without an object, cither 
has an object understood, or is used intransitively (155). 

293. Rem. 4. As substantives have no distinct form of the objective case, the 
arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one case from the 
other. The nominative generally precedes the verb; the objective follows it; 
but when the objective is a relative or interrogative, it precedes both the verb 
and its nominative. The objective should not, if possible,be separated from its verb. 

EXERCISES. 

He loves I. He and they we know, but who art thou ? 
She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye 
only have I known. Let thou and I try it. He who is 
guilty, thou shouldst correct; not I who am innocent. 

(R. I.) Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. 
Upon seeing I, he turned pale. Having exposed his self 
to the fire of the enemy, he soon lost an arm in the action. 

(R. 2.) The man who he raised from obscurity, is 
dead. Who did they entertain so freely? They are the 
persons who we ought to respect. Who having not seen, 
we love. They who opulence has made proud, and who 
luxury has corrupted, are not happy. Who do I love 
60 much? Who shall I pay for this service? 

(R. 3.) Faulty arrangement. This is the man, he 
believed, whom he would send on that business. Becket 
could not better discover, than by attacking so power- 
ful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right- 



M9. 



SYNTAX. 



91 



§ 49 Special rules under rule ii. 

294. 1. Intransitive verbs never govern an objective case; thus 
st Repenting him of his design," should be, l "' repenting of his 
design. 11 

295. Rem. Such expressions as il laughed kirn to scorn ;" " looked daggers; 1 ' 
4 Talked the night away,' ; are anomalies. 

296. II. Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive voice. 
297. Note. An intransitive verb used transitively (153), is in that case consi- 
dered transitive, and not subject to the preceding rules. 

298. III. Transitive verbs do not admit a preposition after 
them; thus, " I must premise with three circumstances, 11 should 
be, " I must premise three circumstances. " 

299. Obs. Verbs signifying to ask, teach, offer, promise, pay, tell, allow, deny, 
and some others, sometimes in colloquial language have an objective case after 
the passive voice ; as, I was taught Grammar. This may also be expressed ac- 
tively ; as. He taught (to) me Grammar ; or passively, Grammar was taught 
Ito) me. 

EXERCISES. 

I. The king found reason to repent him of such dan- 
gerous enemies. They did not fail to enlarge them- 
selves on the subject. Go ilee thee away into the land 
of Judea. It will be difficult to asrree his conduct with 

o 

the principles he professes, " Then having showed his 
wounds, he'd sit him down/ 5 

II. This person was entered into. a conspiracy against 
his master. Fifty men are deserted from the army. 
The influence of this corrupt example was then entirely 
ceased. My father was returned yesterday. 

III. I ? shall premise with two or three general obser- 
vations. He ingratiates with some, by traducing others. 
We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. He 
vvill not allow of it. They shall not want for encou- 
' agement. The covetous man pursues after gain. 

[Obs.] Change the following sentences into the forms 
specified in the Obs. — A few questions were asked at 
cne witness. A snip was promised to him in a few 
weeks. A pardon was offered [to] him. Great liberty 
was allowed [to] me. That was told [to] him some 
time ago. The jewels were offered to her. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 50 

300. § 50. Rule III. Prepositions govern the 
objective case ; as, To whom much is given, of him 
much shall be required. 

301. Obs. The object of a preposition is sometimes an infinitive mood, or pan 
of a sentence ; as, About to depart ; Much depends on who are his advisers. 

302. Rem. 1. Prepositions are commonly placed before the words which they 
govern, and as near to them as possible ; but never before the relative that. But 
whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposition at some distance after 
them ; but this should generally be avoided in composition. 

303. Rem. 2. The preposition, with its regimen, should be placed as near as 
possible to the word to which it is related. 

304. Rem. 3. For is not now used before the infinitive mood. 

305. Rem. 4. It is generally inelegant and improper to connect a preposition 
and active verb with the same word ; as, I wrote to, and warned him of his danger. 

306. Rein. 5. The preposition is often omitted ; as, Give [to] me the book ; do 
it [in] your own way ; I wrote [to] you long ago ; like [unto] his father. Many 
cases of supposed ellipsis, however, may come under the following : 

307. S. Rule. Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure, 
are commonly put in the objective case, without a governing word ; 
as, * He was absent six months" " It costs a penny ; but it is not 
worth a farthing." "The parcel weighs a pound." "The wall is 
six feet high." 

EXERCISES. 

To who will you give that pen ? Will you go with 
him and I ? Withhold not good from they to who it is 
due. With who do you live ? Great friendship subsists 
between he and I. He laid the suspicion on somebody, 
I know not who, in the company. [Eem. 1] Who do 
you speak to ? Who did they ride with ? To have no 
one who we are concerned for, is a deplorable state. 
It was not he whom they were so angry with. The book 
which the story is printed in, is full of fiction. 2. The 
embarrassments of the artificers rendered the progress 
ver} r slow of the work. Beyond this period, the arts 
can not be traced of civil society. 3. What went ye 
out for to see ? Can you give me wax for to seal this 
letter ? He set out for to go home an hour ago. 4. He 
was afraid of, and wished to shun them. He claimed 
and insisted upon his rights. 5. Will you lend to 
me your grammar? I will return it on to-morrow. 



§ 51. syntax. 93 

308. § 51. Rule IV. Tioo or more substantives 
singular, taken in connection, require a verb in the 
plural; as, 1. Cato and Cicero were learned. 2. Honor, 
justice, religion itself, are derided by the profligate. 

309. Rem. 1. Substantives are viewed in connection when they stand togethej 
as the nominative to the same verb, not separately, but combined, forming a plu. 
ral subject, i. e. a subject consisting of more things than one. Sometimes they 
are joined by the conjunction and, as in the first example ; sometimes they are 
without a conjunction, as in the second. 

310. Rem. 2. A singular nominative and an objective connected by with, some 
times have a plural verb; as, "The skip with the crew were lost." This con- 
struction is incorrect, and should not be imitated. It should be "the ship wilh 
the crew was lost," or, "the ship and the crew vjere lost." 

311. Rem. 3. But when two names are used to represent one subject, the verb 
must be in the singular; as. Why is dust and ashes proud. 

312. Rem. 4. When comparison is expressed or implied, and not combination, 
the verb should be singular; as, Caesar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for 
eloquence (315). 

EXERCISES. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
Life and death is in the power of the tongue. Wisdom, 
virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 
Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. His 
politeness and good disposition was, on failure of their 
effect, entirely changed. By whose power all good and 
evil is distributed. Languor and satiety destroys all 
enjoyment. Out of the same mouth proceedeth bles- 
sing and cursing. Leisure of life and tranquillity of 
mind, which fortune and your own wisdom has given 
you, is capable of being better employed. 

[Rem. 3.] That able scholar and critic have been emi- 
nently useful. Your friend and patron, whose name 1 
have forgotten, have just now been enquiring for you. 

[Rem. 4.] I, as well as they, are entitled to redress. 
Perseverance, as well as talents and application, are 
necessary to eminence in literary pursuits. But he, as 
well as Lord dive, have been harshly judged by men 
who have listened to their enemies. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 52 

313. § 52. Rule V. Two or more substantives 
singular, taken separately, or one to the exclusion of 
the rest, have a verb in the singular; as, John, or 
James, or Andrew, intends to accompany you. 

314. Rem. 1. Substantives are taken separately, when, though they all stand as 
Ihe nominative to the verb, yet either one, exclusive of all the rest, is the subject 
of discourse, as in the example above; or, though all are equally the subject of 
discourse, yet they are not so in combination, but individually. In this case the 
verb agrees with the last, and is understood to the rest. 

315. Rem. 2. Substantives taken separately are connected by or, nor, as well 
is, and also. A noun taken to the exclusion of the rest is connected with them 
by such expressions as, and not, but not, not, etc. Also nouns afier each, every \ 
no, though connected by and. But each and every used distributively after a 
plural subject, do not affect the verb; as, k< They have conspired, each to re- 
commend the other;" " They, each hi his turn, have done their duty." 

316. Rule. A singular and a plural nominative , connected by 
a disjunctive, require, a verb in the plural, and the plural nomi- 
native should be placed next the verb; as, Neither the captain nor 
the sailors were saved. 

EXERCISES. 

Either the boy or the girl were present. It must 
be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in 
it robbery or murder. The modest virgin, the prudent 
wife, or the careful matron, are much more serviceable 
in life than a petticoated philosopher. Neither precept 
nor discipline are so forcible as example. A clock or 
a watch move merely as it is moved. Every man, 
woman, and child, were excluded. They, every one, 
pursues their destined course. Each of the seasons, as 
it revolves, give fresh proof of the Divine power and 
goodness. The seasons, each as it revolves, gives plea- 
sure to the soul. Neither poverty nor riches was inju- 
rious to him. They or he was offended. Neither the 
king nor his ministers deserves to be praised. Whether 
one or more was concerned in the business, does not 
yet appear. An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an 
obscure style, are always a fault. Neither the captain, 
nor the passengers, nor any of the crew, was saved. 



§ 53. SYNTAX. 95 

317. § 53. Rule VI. 1. When two or more nomina- 
tives combined are of different persons, the verb is 
plural, and prefers the first person to the second, and 
the second ,to the third; as, He and I are brothers. 

2. When nominatives of different persons are dis- 
junctively connected, the verb in the singular agrees 
with the person next to it; as, "He or I am to blame. 1 ' 
It is generally better, however, to express the verb 
with each nominative; as, u He is to blame,or I am" 

318. Rem. 1. In the order of arrangement in English, the second person is 
usually placed before the third, and the first person is always placed last. 

319. Rem. 2. Under the first of these rules, if the verb be made plural, there 
will be no liability to error in person, as all the persons in the plural are alike. 
Still, the rule will serve to point out the person of the verb. Thus, are in the ex- 
ample is in the first person. 

EXERCISES. 

1. James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country. 
Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsman, has to 
share the blame of this business. My sister and I, as 
well as my brother, is daily employed in our respective 
occupations. While you are playing, my brother and 
I am attentive to our studies. 

2 Either thou or I art greatly mistaken. He or I 
is sure of this week's prize. (Rem. 1) I or John has done 
it. He or thou art the person v/ho must go on that busi- 
ness. Thomas or thou hast spilt the ink on my paper. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Preceding Rules. 

You was there. Was the horses ready. There are 
a flock of geese. In the human species, the influence of 
instinct and habit are generally assisted by the sugges- 
tions of reason. His having robbed several men, were 
the cause of his punishment. Learning, how much 
soever it may be despised by some, yet men know it to 
be an acquirement of great value. He, not the minis- 
ters, control all things. His wisdom and not his mo 
ney produce esteem. 



9H ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 54 

320. §54. Rule VII. 1. When a collective noun 
conveys the idea of unity, its verb must be singular ; 
as, The class was large. 

2. When a collective noun conveys the idea of 
'plurality, the verb must be plural; as, My people do 
not consider. 

321. Rem. 1. Pronouns referring to collective nouns must in like manner b$ 
singular or plural, according as the idea of unity or plurality is expressed (343). 

322. Rem. 2. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a noun expresses 
unity or plurality. It is now considered generally best to use the plural where 
the singular is not manifestly required. 

EXERCISES. 

Stephen's party were entirely broken up. The meet- 
ing were well attended. The people has no opinion of 
their own. The people was very numerous. A com- 
pany of troops were despatched to the opposite side of 
the river. The people rejoices in what should give 
them sorrow. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure 
as their chief good. In France, the peasantry goes 
barefooted, while the middle sort makes use of wooden 
shoes. The British parliament are composed of king, 
lords, and commons. The fleet is all arrived and 
moored in safety. The flock, and not the fleece, are, 
or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care. 
When the nation complain, the rulers should listen. 
The regiment consist of a thousand men. Never were 
any nation so infatuated. But this people who know 
not the law is cursed. The shoal of herrings were im- 
mense. Why do this generation seek after a sign ? The 
fleet were seen sailing up the channel. Mankind is 
more united by the bonds of friendship at preseAt than 
formerly. Part of the coin were preserved. The royal 
society are numerous and flourishing. " The lowing 
herd wind slowly o'er the lea." The noble army of 
martyrs praiseth thee, God ! A great number of 
women were present. The audience takes this in good 
part. All mankind composes one family. 



§ 55. SYNTAX. 97 

323. § 55. Rule VIII. 1. An adjective qualifies 
the substantive to which it belongs; as, A good boy 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the 
singular; those denoting more than one, qualify 
nouns in the plural ; as, This man, these men. 

324. Rem. 1. This rule applies also to participles, and adjective pronouns. 
325. S. Rule. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; the 8, 
* He is miserable poor," should be " he is miserably poor." 

326. Rem. 2. The distinction is : adjectives qualify substantives : adverbs mo 
iify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs 

327. Rem. 3. Adjectives joined with the singular, are the ordinal numbers, 
first, second, last, &c. ; one, each, every, either, neither, much with its compara- 
tive more— all, denoting quantity, enough, whole. See § 18, (137). 

328. When any of these is joined with a plural noun, the whole is regarded 
as one aggregate ; as, The first two weeks ; Every ten miles. App. XX. 

329. Rem. 4. Adjectives joined with the plural only, are all cardinal numbers 
above one, the words few, many , with its comparative more, both, several, enow 
Many is sometimes construed with a singular noun; as, " Full many a flower. 57 

330. Rem. 5. The adjectives, all, no, some, other, may be joined with a sin 
gular or plural noun according to the sense. 

331 Rem. 5. " This here," " that there," for this and that ; and "them," 
"them there," for these and those, are vulgarisms. 

332. Rem. 6. This means and that means refer to one cause ; these means, 
those means, to more than one (§ 10, 5 note]. Amends is used in the same way 

333. [.Rem. 8. An adjective as a. predicate qualifies the subject; as, God is good,] 

EXERCISES. 

This boys are diligent. I have not seen him this ten 
days. Those sort of people fear nothing. These sol 
diers are remarkable tall. They behaved the noblest. 
It is uncommon good. Them books are almost new. 
Give me that there knife. These kind of favors did 
real injury. There is six foot of water in the hold. I 
have no interests but that of truth and virtue. You 
will find the remark in the second or third pages. 
Charles was extravagant, and by those means became 
poor. The scholars were attentive and industrious, 
and by that means acquired knowledge. Let each es- 
teem others better than themselves. Are either of 
these men your friend ? 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 56. 

334. § 58. Rule IX. When two persons or 
things are contrasted, that refers to the first men- 
tioned, and this to the last; as, Virtue ami vice are 
opposite qualities ; that ennobles the mind, this 
debases it. 

335. Ke?n. 1. Farmer and latter, one and other, are often used instead of that and 
this. Fornur and latter are alike in both numbers; one and other refer to the 
8'nguiar only- That and this, under this rule, are seldom applied to persons; but 
former and latter are applied to persons or things indiscriminately. In most cases 
the repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them. 

336. Rem. 2. Hence in the use of the demonstratives when no contrast is ex- 
pressed, this and these refer to things present or just mentioned ; that and those t 
to things distant or formerly mentioned. Thus, " They can not be separated from 
the subject, and for that reason," &c M should be <J and for this reason," &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man; 
this tends to excite pride, that discontentment. Reli- 
gion raises men above themselves, irreligion sinks them 
beneath the brutes; that binds them down to a poor 
pitiable speck of perishable earth, this opens for them 
a prospect to the skies. The king and the tyrant are 
very different characters ; that rules his people by his 
absolute wall and power, this by laws to which they 
consent. More rain falls in the first two summer 
months than in the first two winter ones ; but it makes 
a much greater show in the one than in the other, be- 
cause there is a much slower evaporation. Health is 
more valuable than great possessions, and yet the latter 
is often sacrificed in the pursuit of the former. Exer- 
cise and temperance are the best promoters of health : 
that prevents disease ; this often dissipates it. 

Self-love, the spring of motion, moves the soul, 
Reason's comparing balance rules the whole: 
Man, but for this, no action could attend-, 
Man, but for that, were active to no end. 

(Rem. 2.) That very subject which we are now 
discussing, is still involved in mystery. This vessel of 
which you spoke yesterday, sailed for the West Indies 
this morning at ten o'clock. g 



§57. 




SYNTAX. 



99 



337. § 57. Rule X. PrGnonns ag&ee with the 
nouns for which they stand, in genWer, number ', 
and person ; as, John is here ; he came an hour ago. 
Every tree is known by its fruit. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

338. Rule I. When a pronoun refers to two or more sub* 
stantives taken together and of different persons, it becomes plural , 
and prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the 
third; as, John and I do our duty. 

339. Rule II. When a pronoun refers to two or more sub~ 
stantives of the same gender, taken separately, or to one of them 
exclusively , it must be singular ; as, A clock or a watch is com- 
plicated in its movements. (315.) 

340. Note. Singular substantives of different genders, taken separately, can not 
oe represented by one pronoun in English, for want of a third personal pronoun 
of the common gender; thus, we can not say, "If a man or a woman hurt htm 
eelf." In such cases, though contrary to rule, it is better to use the plural t 
themselves, than the clumsy expression, "hurt himself or herself. 

341. Rule III. But if either of the substantives referred to 
be plural, the pronoun must be plural also ; as. Neither he nor 
they trouble themselves. 

342. Rem. 1. Nouns are taken together when connected by and expressed or 
understood ; separately, when connected by or or nor, &c. (see 314, 315). 

343. Rule IV. When a pronoun refers to a collective noun 
in the singular expressing many as one whole, it should be in the 
neuter singular; as, The army proceeded on its march. But 
when it expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should be plu- 
ral ; as, " The court were divided in their opinions.'" 

344. Rem. 2. It is improper, in the progress of a sentence, to express the same 
object by pronouns of different forms or genders; as, I laboured long to make 
thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. It should be either, " to 
make you happy," or, "thou rewardest." 

EXERCISES. 

Answer not a fool according to h^r folly. A stone 
is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is 
heavier than them both. Take ha,ndfuls of ashes of the 
furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven in 
the sight of Pharaoh ; and it shall become small dust. 
The cr % own had it in their pdwer to give such rewards 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 57 

Exercises on Rule X. continued. 

as they thought proper. The fruit tree beareth fruit 
after his kind. Eebecca took goodly raiment and put 
them upon Jacob. [Let every boy answer for them- 
selves. Each of us had more than we wanted. Every 
one of you should attend to your own business. A maa's 
recollections of the past regulate their anticipations of 
the future. A person's success in life depends on their 
exertions.] 

I. Thou and he shared it between them. James and 
I are attentive to their studies. You and he are diligent 
in reading their books ; therefore they are good boys. 

II. John or James will favor us with their company. 
One or other must relinquish their claim. Each book 
and each paper is in their place. Every day and every 
hour brings their own temptations. Neither wealth 
nor honor confers happiness on their votaries. No 
thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or 
evil, can escape in the judgment. Note. Let every 
man and woman do her best. If any boy or girl should 
neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place. 

IV. The assembly held their meetings in the evening. 
The court in their wisdom decided otherwise. Society 
is not always answerable for the conduct of their mem- 
bers. Send the multitude away, that it may go and 
buy itself bread. The public are informed that its in- 
terests are secured. 

[Rem. 2.] Virtue forces her way through obscurity, 
and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. Thou 
hast ever shewn thyself my real friend, and your kind- 
ness to me I can never forget. Care for thyself, if 
you w^ould have others care for thee. Though you are 
great, yet consider thou art a man. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Thou, goddess — mother, with our sire comply j 
if vou submit, the thunderer stands appeased. _ 



§ 58. SYNTAX. 10 L 

345. § 53. Rule XI. The relative agrees with 
its antecedent in number and person, and the verb 
agrees with it accordingly ; as, Thou who speakest. 
The book which was lost. 

346 Rem. 1. The antecedent, or that to which the relative refers, may be a 
noun, or pronoun, as in the examples above ; also an imperative mood, or clause 
of a sentence ; as, ; * To act rashly, which is often done, is unwise." 

347. Rem. 2. Who is applied to persons, or things personified ; which, to all 
other objects — sometimes to children — to collective nouns composed of persons, 
when unity is expressed ; and also to persons in asking questions. § 17, Obs. 1, 2, 4. 

34S. Rem. 3. The relative that is used instead of vjho or which — 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree ; after the words very, same and 
all, and often after no, some and any. 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things; as, The man, and 
the horse that we saw yesterday. 

3. After the interrogative who; often after the personal pronouns, and gene- 
rally when the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; as, Who that has any sui*e 
of religion, would have argued thus. I that speak in righteousness. 

EXERCISES. 

1 & 2. Those which seek wisdom, will certainly 
find her. This is the friend which I love. That is the 
vice whom I hate. This moon who rose last night had 
not yet filled her horns. Blessed is the man which 
walketh in wisdom's ways. Thou who has been a wit- 
ness of the fact, canst give an account of it. I am happy 
in the friend which I have long proved. The court who 
gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. 
The tiger is a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 
Who of these men came to his assistance ? [§ 17, Obs. 1], 

3. It is the best which can be got. Solomon was the 
wisest man whom the world ever saw. It is the same 
picture which you saw before. "And all which beauty, 
all which wealth e'er gave, await alike the inevitable 
hour." The lady and lapdog which we saw at the 
window, have disappeared. The men and things which 
he has studied, have not contributed to the improve- 
ment of his morals. I who speak unto thee, am he. 
Sidney was one of the wisest and most active governors 
which Ireland had enjoyed for several years. He has 
committed the same fault which I condemned yesterday, 
• 9* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 59 

§ 59. Special rules and observations on rule xi. 

349. Rule I. The relative ,ivith its clause, should be placed as near 
as possible to its antecedent, to prevent ambiguity ; thus, " The boy 
beat his companion, whom every body believed incapable of doing 
mischief," should be u The boy, whom every body believed in- 
capable of doing mischief, beat his companion." Hence, 

350. Rule II. When the relative is preceded by two words refer- 
ring to the same thing, one in the subject and the other in the 
predicate, its proper antecedent is the one next to it; as, Thou art 
the man who was engaged in that business. 

351. Rem. 1. If the relative in the pr ceding example referred to thou, the sen- 
tence should be arranged thus, '* Thou who wast engaged in that business, art the 
man." In such sentences care should always be taken to ascertain to which 
word the relative and its clause belongs, and to arrange the sentence accordingly. 
In this, the sense is the only guide. 

352. Rule III. The antecedent, if a pronoun of the third per- 
son, is often understood when no emphasis is implied ; it is omitted 
before what, and the compound relatives, whoever, whosoever, etc. 
(§ 16, Obs. 3.) 

353. Rem. 2. The relative is sometimes understood, especially in colloquial 
language ; as, " The friend I visited yesterday, is dead to-day," for " The friend 
whom I visited,' ' &c. 

EXERCISES. 

I. The king dismissed his minister, without any in- 
quiry, who had never before committed so unjust an 
action. The soldier with a single companion, who 
passed for the bravest man in the regiment, offered his 
services. Thou art a friend indeed, who hast relieved 
me in this dangerous crisis. 

II. Thou art the friend that hast often relieved me, 
and that hast not deserted me now in the time of pe- 
culiar need. I am the man who command you. I am 
the person who adopt that sentiment, and maintain it. 
Thou art he who driedst up the Red Sea. 

III. He whoever steals my purse, steals trash 
Those whom he would, he slew ; and those whom he 
would, he kept alive. The man whosoever committeth 
sin, is the servant of sin. To them whomsoever he 
paw in distress, he imparted relief. 



$ 60. SYNTAX. 103 

354 § 60. Rule XII. Substantives denoting 
the same person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero 
the Orator. 

Words thus used are said to be in apposition 

355. Words in apposition must always be in the same member of the sen» 
tence ; i. e. both in the subject or both in the predicate. 

356. Rem. 1. Two or more nouns, forming one complex name, or a name and 
a title, widi the definite article and a numeral adjective prefixed, have the plural 
tei mi nation annexed to the lastoiyly- as, the two Miss Hays. The three Miss 
Browns. The two Dr. Monroes. 

357. Rem. 2. But when used without the numeral, the plural termination is an- 
nexed to ihe first; as, Messrs. Thompson. Misses Hamilton. § 10, 1. But of 
marred ladies, the name only is pluralized; as, the Mrs. Browns. 

358. Rem. 3. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a plurgfc. 
substantive ; as, They stood each in the other's way. In this way is to be re- 
solved the common phrase, " They stood in each other's way." "They loved 
one another" = they loved, one (loved) another. 

359. S. Rule. The word containing the answer to a question^ 
must always be in the same case with the word that asks it / as, 
Who did that? / (did it). Whose books are these? Johris. 

EXERCISES. 

The chief of the princes, him who defied the bravest 
of the enemy, was assassinated by a dastardly villain. 
He was the son of the Eev. Dr. West, he who pub- 
lished Pindar at Oxford. 

(Rem. 1, 2.) The two Misses Louisa Howard are 
very amiable young ladies. The two Messrs. Websters 
left town yesterday. The two Messrs. Websters will 
return to-morrow. The Doctors Stcvensons have been 
successful in performing a very difficult operation. The 
two Doctors Ramsays have returned. The Mrs. Town* 
send were there, as well as the Mrs. Bay. 

(S. Rule.) Of whom were the articles bought? Of a 
grocer, he who resides near the Mansion House. Was 
any person besides the grocer present? Yes, both him 
and his clerk were present. Who was the money paid 
to ? To the grocer. Who counted it ? Both the clerk 
and him. Who said that ? Me. Wliose books are 
these ? Her who went out a few minutes ago. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 61 

360. §61. Rule XIII. The predicate substantive 
after a verb, is in the same case as the subject before 
it ; as, It is /. I took it to be him. 

361. Rem. 1. The verbs which connect the subject and its predicative sub- 
Btantive under this rule, are chiefly the verb to be, to become, and some other 
intransitive verbs, and passive verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, and the 
fike j as, He shall be called John. He became the slave of passion. Stephen died a 
martyr. Hence the case of the subject determines the case of the predicate. 

362. Rem. 2. In substantive phrases, the infinitive or participle of an intransitive 
verb without a subject,is followed by a substantive or adjective taken indefimtely, 
and the substantive is in the nominative case (§ 40, R. 23, Obs. 2) ; as, " To be 
the slave of passion, is of all slavery the most wretched." " His dying intestate 
caused all this trouble." " It is our duty to be obedient to our parents." 

363. Rem. 3. In English almost any verb may be used as a copula between 
its subject and an adjective as a part, or at least as a modification of the predicate ; 
as, "It tastes good," "The wind blows hard," " I remember right," " He 
feels sick," "He strikes hard," " He drinks deep," &c. In such expressions 
the adjective somewhat resembles an adverb in its use, and has sometimes been 
parsed as such. It is, however, an adjective in fact as well as in form, and 
qualifies the subject, not simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected by, 
or connected with the action expressed by the verb. This is a common phraseo- 
logy of our language, especially in poetry, and is analogous to the Latin " insons 
feci," ' W I did it innocently;" " accurrunt lajti," " they run up joyfully " 

EXERCISES. 

It was me who wrote the letter. Be not afraid, it 
is me. I am certain that it could not have been her. 
It is them that deserve most blame. You would un- 
doubtedly act the same part if you were him. I under- 
stood it to be he. It may have been him, but there is 
no proof of it. It may have been him or them that did it 

Who do you think him to be ? Whom do men say 
that I am? She is the person who I understood it to 
have been. Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid 
of him. Was it me that said so ? It is impossible to 
be them. I am certain it was not him. 

Promiscuous Exercises 

Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell 
me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the 
scholars is here. Trust not him whom you know is dis- 
honest. I love no interests but that of truth and virtue 



§ 62. SYNTAX. 105 

364. § 62. Rule XIV. Wlien two nouns come 
together, denoting the possessor and the thing pos- 
sessed, the first is put in the possessive case ; as, 
John's book ; on eagle's wings. 

Gbs. The latter or governing substantive is frequently understood ; as, I found 
him at the stationer's (viz. shop or house). 

365. Rem. 1. A noun and its possessive pronoun should not be used for the 
possessive ; thus, " A man his ways," should be, " A man's ways." 

366. Rem. 2. The preposition of, with the objective, is generally equivalent to 
the possessive case, and is often u?ed in preference to it. Thus, " In the name 
of the army, is better than " In the army's name." Sometimes, however, these 
two modes of expression are not equivalent; thus, " The Lord's day," and " The 
day of the Lord," convey ideas entirely different. 

367. Rem. 3. Sometimes of is used before the possessive governing a 
substantive understood after it ; as, This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's 
(viz. discoveries). " This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton," expresses the 
same idea. The.se two modes of expression, however, sometimes convey quite 
different ideas ; thus, " A picture of my friend," means a portrait of him; " A 
picture of my friend's," means a picture belonging to him (App. XIV). Under 
both these remarks, it may be observed as a general— 

Rule. In the use of the possessive, or of its equivalent of, 
with the objective, care should be taken to avoid harshness on the 
one hand, and ambiguity on the other, 

EXERCISES. 

It is Pompeys pillar. Seek Virtues reward. A 
mans manners frequently influence his fortune. My 
ancestors virtue is not mine. Asa his heart was perfect 
with the Lord. A mothers tenderness and a fathers 
care are nature's gifts for mans advantage. Helen her 
beauty was the cause of Troy its destruction. Longinus 
his treatise on the sublime. For Christ his sake. 

[Rem. 3.] The Commons' vote was decidedly against 
the measure. The Lord's house adjourned at a late 
hour. The Representative's house convened at 12 
o'clock. He married my daughter's husband's sister. 
She married the brother of the wife of my son. The 
Lord's day will come as a thief in the night. The next 
day of the Lord came ail the people to hear the word. 
That is a good likeness of De Witt Clinton's. He is 
the only son of his mother's. The court's decision. 
The report of the sickness of the son of the king of 
England, excited the nation's fears. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- § 63 

368. § 63. Observations on rule xiv. 

1. When several nouns come together in the possessive casp, 
implying common possession, the sign of the possessive fs) is an- 
nexed to the last, and understood to the rest •, as, u Jane and Lucy's 
books, 1 ' i. e. books the common property of Jane and Lucy. But 
if common possession is not implied, or if several words intervene, 
the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each- as, " Jane's 
and Lucy's books," i. e. books, some of which are Jane's, and 
others, Lucy's. " This gained the king's, as w r ell as the people's 
approbation." 

2 When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one, 
the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only- as, " Julius 
Caesar's Commentaries." u John the Baptist's head." "His 
brother Philip's wife." u The Bishop of London's charge." 

3. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign 
of the possessive may be annexed to either-, as, I called at Smith's 
the bookseller, or, at Smith the bookseller's. But if, to such a 
phrase, the governing substantive is added, the sign of the pos- 
sessive must be annexed to the last-, as, "I called at Smith the 
bookseller's shop." 

4. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consisting of 
more terms than one, the sign of the possessive must be annexed 
to the name or first substantive-, as, "This Psalm is David's, the 
king, priest, and prophet of the people." "That book is 
Smith's, the bookseller in Maiden Lane." 

5. When two nouns in the possessive are governed by different 
words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each- as, 
"He took refuge at the governor's, the king's representative,' ; 
i.e. at the " Governor's house." 

6. The s after the apostrophe is omitted, w T hen the first noun 
has the sound of s in its last syllable, and the second noun begins 
with s; as, For righteousness' sake, etc. (§11, Obs. 2). In other 
cases, such omission would generally be improper: as, James 
book, Miss' shoes -, instead of James's book, Miss's shoes (See 
An. Gr., 175). 

7. A clause of a sentence should never come between the pos- 
sessive case and the word by which it is governed-, thus, " She 
began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under- 
standing," should be, " the excellent understanding of the farmer, 
as she called him." 

8. The possessive whosesoever, and the compounds whichsoever, 
whatsoever, howsoever, are sometimes divided by interposing the 
word to which they belong-, as, whose house soever; what man 
soever. This, in general, however, is to be avoided, and to be ad- 
mitted only when euphony and precision are thereby promoted. 



§63 



SYNTAX. 



107 



Rule XIV. Continued. 



EXERCISES ON OBSERVATIONS. 

L William's and Mary's reign. This is your father's, 
mother's and brother's advice. Peter's, John's, and An- 
drew's occupation was that of fishermen. He asked 
his father, as well as his mother's advice. John and 
Robert's boots fit them very well. The Betsey and the 
Speedwell's cargoes were both damaged. 

2. Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. The 
Bishop's of Landaff's excellent work. During Charles's 
the second's reign. The Lord Mayor's of London au- 
thority. That carriage is the Lord Mayor's of London. 

3. The books were left at Brown's the bookseller's. 
I left him at Mayell's the hatter's shop. Thorburn's 
the seedsman store is now open. 

4. The books were left at Brown the bookseller and 
stationer's. I left the parcel at Johnson, a respectable 
bookseller, a worthy man. and an old friend's. I reside 
at Lord Stormont, my old patron and benefactor's. 
Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Caesar, 
the greatest general of antiquity's. 

5. That book is Thompson the Tutor's assistant. 
We spent an hour at Wilson the Governor's deputy, and 
on our return called at Mr. Smith, little Henry's father. 

6. James' father arrived yesterday, and Mr. Spence* 
servant came with hkn. Charles' books are completely 
spoiled. For conscience's sake. Miss' books will be sent. 

7. They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he 
was called, extravagant conduct. This is Paul's the 
christian hero and great apostle of the Gentiles advice. 
Beyond this the arts can not be traced of civil, society 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THIS EULE. 

The Emperor and the dukes cavalry were engaged. '' 
This is for consciences sake. Escape Atrides ire. He 
bought the articles at Wilson's the druggist's. William 
and John's wives were present. The estate of William's 
wras much encumbered. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 64 

389. § 64. Rule XV. When the present or per- 
feet participle is used as a noun (195), a substantive 
before it is put in the possessive case ; as, Much 
depends on the pupil's composing frequently; his 
having done so is evident. 

370. Obs. A pronoun in this construction must be the possessive pronoun, not 
the possessive case; as, Much depends on your composing-, &c, not yours. 

371. Rem. 1. If the participle is not used as a noun, the noun or pronoun be- 
fore it may be in any case which the construction requires ; as, " I see men 
walking-." These two modes of expression, in many cases, convey very different 
ideas, and therefore care should be taken not to confound them ; thus, " What 
do you think of my horse running to-day?" means, Do you think I should let 
him run? But, u What do you think of my horse* s running to-day?" means, 
he has run, do you think he ran well ? 

372. Rem. 2. The present participle, with a possessive before it, sometimes 
admits of after it, and sometimes not. Here the sense must guide. 

373. Rem. 3. When a preposition or infinitive follows the participle, of is inad. . 
inissible ; as, His depending- on promises, proved his ruin. His neglecting to 
study when young, rendered him ignorant all his life. 

EXERCISES. 

What is the reason of this person dismissing his ser 
vant so hastily? I remember it being done? This jea- 
lousy accounts for Hall charging the Duke of Gloucester 
with the murder of Prince Edward. He being a great 
man, did not make him a happy man. Much depends 
on the rule being observed. Richard observing the rule, 
will be the means of him avoiding error. What do you 
think of my horse running to-day ? did he rim well ? 
Man rebelling against his Maker brought him into ruin. 
A man being poor, does not make him miserable. 

[Rem. 1.] That man's running so fast, is in danger 
of falling. A youth's pursuing his studies with dili- 
gence and perseverance, can hardly fail of success. 

[Rem. 2.] Our approving their bad conduct may en- 
courage them to become worse. For his avoiding that 
precipice, he is indebted to his friend's care. Their 
observing the rules prevented errors. By his studying 
of the scriptures, he became wise. Their condemning 
of the innocent and acquitting of the guilty will cove* 
them with infamy. 



§ 65. SYNTAX. 109 

374. § 65. Rule XVI. When the present partici- 
ple, used as a noun, has an aiiicle before it, it should 
have the preposition of after it ; as, In the keeping 
vf his commandments there is a great reward. 

375. Rem. 1. The sense will often be the same, if both the article and the pre- 
position be omitted ; but the one should not be omitted without the other ; thus, 
:< In keeping his commandments,' ; &c. 

376. Rem. 2. In some cases, however, these two modes express very different 
«deas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary; as, " He confessed the 
whole in the hearing of three witnesses, and the Gourt spent an hour in hearing 
their deposition/*' To prevent ambiguity in such cases, observe the following 

377. Rule. JVhen the participle expresses something of which 
the noun following is the doer, it should have the article and pre- 
position ; as, u It was said in the hearing of the witness." When 
it expresses something of which the noun following is not the doe?, 
but the object, both should be omitted; as, i: the Court spent some 
time in hearing the witness." 

373. Rem. 3. When a preposition follows the participle so that o/can not be 
used (373), and yet an article is required before it, it is generally better to adopt 
a different mode of expression ; thus, " The net attending to duty :'* better, "the 
want of attention to duty. ;; 

EXERCISES. 

Learning of languages is very difficult. The learning 
any thing speedily, requires great application. By the 
exercising our faculties, they are improved. By ob- 
serving of these rules, you will avoid mistakes. By 
the obtaining wisdom, thou wilt command esteem. 
This was a betraying the trust reposed in him. The 
not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very com- 
mon error. He confined all his philosophy to the suf- 
fering ills patiently. This order so critically given, 
occasioned the gaining the battle. This was, in fact, 
converting the deposit es to his own use. Propriety of 
pronunciation is the giving to a word its proper sound. 

(Rem. 2.) At hearing the ear they shall obey. Be- 
cause of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord 
abhorred them. He expressed the pleasure he had in 
the hearing of the philosopher. In the hearing of the 
will read, and in the examining of sundry papers 
much time was spent. 
10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 68. 

379. § 68. Rule XVII. The past participle, and 
not the past tense, should be used after the verbs 
have and be ; as, I have written (not, J have 
wrote). I am chosen* 

380. S. Rule. The past participle should not be used instead 
of the past tense; thus, it is improper to say, u he begun," for 
"he began-," u he run," for "he ran-," ; 'he done," for "he did j" 
" he seen," for u he saw." 

381. Rem. The present participle active, and not the past, is used after the 
verb to be, to express the continued suffering of an action; as, " The house is 
building," not " being built." When the participle in ing has not a passive 
sense, the idea must be expressed by means of the active voice. Thus we do 
not say, " the book is now reading,*' (nor " the book is now being read,") but 
" he (or she, &c.) is now reading the book" (190). See also App. XIX. 

EXERCISES. 

I would have wrote a letter. He had mistook his 
true interest. The coat had no seam, but was wove 
throughout. The French language is spoke in every 
part of Europe. His resolution was too strong to b8 
shook by slight opposition. The horse was stole from 
the pasture. They have chose the part of honor and 
virtue. She was shewed into the drawing room. He 
has broke the bottle. Some fell by the way side and 
was trode down. The work was very well execute. 
He has chose to ride. He has drunk too much. I am 
almost froze. He has forsook us. It was well wrote. 
S. R. By too eager pursuit, he run a great risk of be- 
ing disappointed. He soon begun to weary of having 
nothing to do. He was greatly heated, and drunk with 
avidity. The bending hermit here a prayer begun. 
And end with sorrows as they first begun. 
A second deluge learning thus o'er-run, 
And the Monks finished what the Goths begun. 

These men done more than could have been expected. 
There can be no mistake, for I seen them do it. 

[Hem.] The work was then being printed, and it was 
expected to be published in a few days. That house has 
been being built for six months ; it is now being plas- 
tered, and will be finished soon. 



§67 SYNTAX. HI 

382. § 67. Rule XVIII. The infinitive mood 
is governed by verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; as, 
I desire to learn — A desire to learn — desirous to 
learn. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

383. I. One verb being the subject of another, is put in the in- 
finitive ; as " To study is profitable." 

384. II. One verb governs another as Its object in the infini- 
tive ; as, Boys love to play. 

385. III. The infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or 
design, of a preceding act; as, " Some who came £o scoffs re- 
mained to pray." 

386. IV. In comparisons, the infinitive is put after so — as, 
too, or than-, as, u Be so good as to read this letter." 

387. V. To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the 
verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active 
voice, nor after let in the passive. (See An. Gram. 878.) 

Also sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have, and knoio. 

3S8. Rem. 1. The infinitive, as the subject or the object of a verb, may have a 
subject of its own in the objective ; as, For us to lie is base. I wished him to go. 

389. Rem. 2. The infinitive may be considered as a verbal noun having the no- 
minative and accusative. It is used after the preposition about ; as, About to de- 
part ; and it is sometimes independent ; as, To confess the truth, I was in fault. 

EXERCISES. 

Strive learn. They obliged him do it. Newton did 
not wish obtrude his discoveries on the public. His 
penetration and diligence seemed vie with each other. 

V. They need not to call upon her. I dare not to 
proceed so hastily. I have seen some young persons to 
conduct themselves very discreetly. He bade me to go 
home. It is the difference of their conduct which makes 
us to approve the one and to reject the other. We 
heard the thunder to roll. He felt the pain to abate. 
I would have you to take more care. He was reluc- 
tantly made obey. They were heard say it in a large 
company. They were seen pass the house. He was 
let to go. I have observed some satirist to use the term. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 68 

390. § 68. Rule XIX. 1. When doubt and fu- 
turity are both implied, the subjunctive mood is used ; 
as, Though he fall (hereafter), he shall rise again. 

2. When doubt only, and not futurity, is implied, 
the indicative is used; as, If he speaks (i. e. now) 
as he thinks, he may be safely trusted. 

391. Remark. Doubt is usually expressed by the conjunctions if, though, unless, 
except, whether, &c. Whether futurity is implied or not, must be ascertained 
from the context. In accurate composition, of course, the mood employed will 
direct to the meaning of the sentence ; thus, " I will do it if the master desires 
me" (i. e. at present). Here there is uncertainty only whether he does desire me. 
" I will do it if the master desire me" (i. e. at a future time). Here there is un- 
certainty whether he will desire me or not. Consequently there is both doubt and 
futurity. If and though, when referring to what is fixed and certain, are 
equivalent to " notwithstanding, ^ and consequently the verb follows in the in- 
dicative ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 

392. Rule I. Lest, and that, annexed to a command, require 
the subjunctive mood ; as, Love not sleep, lest thou come to pover- 
ty. Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad. 

393. Rule II. If, with but folloiving it, when futurity is deno- 
ted, requires the subjunctive mood ; as, If he do but touch the 
hills, they shall smoke. When future time is not expressed, the 
indicative ought to be used. 

394. The subjunctive were, wert, is used to express a wish or desire ; as, I wish 
that I were at home. O that they were wise. 

EXERCISES. 

If a man smites his servant and he die, he shall surely 
be put to death. If he acquires riches, they will corrupt 
his mind. Though he be high, he hath respect to the 
lowly. If thou liye virtuously, thou art happy. If he 
does promise, he will certainly perform. that his 
heart was tender. If he is at home to-morrow, give 
him the letter. 0, that thou wast as my brother ! 

(S. Kule 1.) Despise not any condition, lest it hap- 
pens to be thy own. Let him that is sanguine take 
heed lest he miscarries. See that thou speakest truth. 

(S. Kule II.) If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 
If he be but in health, I am content. If he does but 
intimate his desire, it will produce obedience. 



§ 69. SYNTAX. 113 

395. § 69. Rule XX. 1- Conjunctions connect 
words or sentences (241). 

2. Conjunctions couple the same moods and tenses 
of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, Do 
good, and seek peace. He and /are well. 

396. Rem. 1. Verbs in the same mood and tense, connected by a conjunction, 
must also be in the same form. For the different forms of the verb; see $ 27. 

397. Rem. 2. Wh^n conjunctions connect different moods and tenses,- or when 
a contrast is stated with but, not, though, &c., the nominative is frequently re 
peated ; as, You can not ride, but you may walk. 

Note. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, and is violated nearly 
as often as it is observed. 

398. Rem. 3. After verbs of doubting, fearing and denying, the conjunction 
that should be used, and not lest, but, but that; as, You do not doubt that he is 
honest; They feared that they would not return; You do not derv that he haa 
same ability. That is frequently understood; as. We were desirous [that) you 
would return. 

399. Rem. 4. The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even when 
the nominative goes before ; as, "Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.'' 
This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably than at first had the force 
of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He reads and wrote well. Anger glances into the 
breast of a wise man but will rest only in the bosom of 
fools. If he understand the subject and attends to it,he 
can scarcely fail of success. Professing regard and to 
act differently marks a base mind. 

2. He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend. 
You and us enjoy many privileges. My father and him 
were very intimate. He is taller than me. I am not 
so wise as him. She was six years older than me. You 
may as lawfully preach as them that do. 

Rem. 1. We often overlook the blessings we possess, 
and are searching after those which are out of our reach. 
Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to 
forgive him ? 

2. Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily 
produce virtue. She was proud though now humble. 
He is not rich but respectable. 

3. We can not question but this confederacy must 
have been a source of friendship and attachment. We 
were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 

10* 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 70 

400. § 70. Rule XXI. Some conjunctions and 
adverbs have their corresponding connectives ; thus, 

Neither requires nor after it: as, Neither he nor his brother was in. 

Though, yet ; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes, &c. 

WJiether, or; Whether he go or stay. 

Either, or; I will either write or send. 

4s, as; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. 

4s, so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be 

So, as; (with a negative, expressing inequality) He is not so 

wise as his brother. 

So, that ; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I can not 

walk. 

Not only, but also ; Not only his property, but also his life was in dan- 
ger. 

If, then ; (in reasoning) If he. can do it, then he will do it. 

Note. As and so, in either member of a comparison, are properly adverbs, § 34, 4. 

Note. The Poets frequently use Or — or, for Either— -or ; and Nor— nor, for iVet 
tter — nor. In prose, iVo* — nor, is often used for Neither— nor. The ye« after 
though is often properly suppressed. Or does not require e^Aer before, when the 
one word is a mere explanation of the other ; as, It is six feet,o/ one fathom deep. 
In other cases, when either is not used, it may be supplied. 

EXERCISES. 

It is neither cold or hot. It is so clear as I need not 
explain it. The relations are so uncertain as that they 
require much examination. The one is equally deserving 
as the other. I must be so candid to own that I have 
been mistaken. He would not do it himself, nor let me 
do it. He was as angry as he could not speak. So as 
thy days, so shall thy strength be. Though he slay me, 
so will I trust in him. He must go himself, or send his 
servant. There is no condition so secure as it can not 
admit of change. He is not as eminent and as much 
esteemed as he thinks himself to be. Neither despise 
the poor, or envy the rich ; for the one dieth so as the 
other. As far as I am able to judge, the book is well 
written. His raiment was so white as snow. He must be 
as candid as to say so. There was no man so sanguine, 
who did not apprehend some ill consequences. The dog 
in the manger would not eat the hay himself, nor suffer 
the ox to do it. He was so fat, he could hardly walk. 
NeLher despise or oppose what thou dost not under- 
stand. 



$ 71. SYNTAX. 115 

401. § 71. Rule XX11. The comparative de- 
gree and the 'pronoun other require than after them, 
and such requires as ; as, Greater than I ; No other 
than he ; Such as do well. 

Note. Such, meaning a ronseqi'sncc. or so great, requires that after it. 

402. S. Rule. When two objects are compared* the comparative is 
generally used; but when more than two, the superlative ; as, 
James is older than John. Mary is the wisest of them all. 

403. Rem. 1. Sometimes, however, the superlative is used when only two 
objects are compared, viz. when it is more agreeable to the ear, and when it can 
not injure the sense ; as, He is the weakest oi the two. 

404. Revi. 2. A comparison in which more than two are concerned, may be ex- 
pressed by the comparative as well as by the superlative, and in some cases bet- 
ter; but the comparative considers the object* compared as belonging to different 
classes, while the superlative compares them as included in one class. The com- 
parative is used thus : " Greece was more polished than any other nation of an- 
tiquity. " Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of an- 
tiquity. She was none of the other nations : she was more polished than they. 
The same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out: 
thus, " Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity." Here, to Greece is 
assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered — 
the nations of antiquity : she is one of them. This distinction should be carefully 
observed. The comparative is sometimes u^ed in the same way ; as, He is the 
taller of the two. 

EXERCISES. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
Be ready to succour such persons who need thy assist- 
ance. They had no sooner risen, but they applied them- 
selves to their studies. These savage people seemed to 
have no other element but war. Such men that act 
treacherously, ought to be avoided. He gained nothing 
farther by his speech, but only to be commended for 
his eloquence. This is none other but the gate of Pa- 
radise. Such sharp replies that cost him his life. To 
trust in him, is no more but to acknowledge his power. 

(S. R.) James is the wisest of the two. Of the three, 
Jane is the weaker. [Rem. 2.] Chimborazo is higher 
than any other mountain in Europe. Eve was the fair- 
est of all her daughters. I understood him the best of 
all others who spoke on the subject. Solomon was 
wiser than any of the ancient kings. China has a 
greater population than any nation on earth. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 72. 

405. § 72. Rule XXIII. Double comparatives 
and superlatives are improper ; thus, better, best , 
not more better, most best. 

Rem. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by good au- 
thority ; as, li Lesser Asia," " Every lesser thing."— N. Y. Review. 

Obs. It is improper to compare adjective*, whose signification does not admit of 
increase or diminution [§ 13, Obs. 4]. Of this kind are true, perfect, universal^ 
ch*ef, extreme, supreme, &c, which have in themselves a superlative sense* 
When comparison of these and similar words is admitted, as is sometimes done 
(§ 13, Obs. 4 Rem.), they must be understood in a limited senso. Such adjectives 
as superior, inferior, etc., though they imply comparison, are not in the compara- 
tive degree, and are never construed as such, but have to after them. 

EXERCISES. 

It argued the most sincerest candor to make suck in 
acknowledgment. After the most strictest sect of our 
religion, I lived a Pharisee. He always posses id a 
more serener temper. It is more easier to buih two 
chimneys, than to maintain one. The tongue is ke a 
race horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it 
carries. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest. 

His assertion was most untrue. His work was per- 
fect, his brother's more perfect, and his father's the 
most perfect of all. Virtue confers the supremest dig- 
nity on man, and should be his chiefest desire. His 
most extreme vanity renders him most supremely ridi- 
culous. This is more inferior than that, though it is 
more superior than many others. 

Promiscuous. The great power and force of custom 
forms another argument against bad company. And 
Joshua he shall go over before thee. If thou be the 
king of the Jews, save thyself. The people there- 
fore that was with him when he raised Lazarus out of 
his grave, bare record. Public spirit is a more univer- 
sal principle than a sense of honour. I see you have a 
new pair of gloves [§ 86, 7], Five years interest were 
demanded. In all his works is sprightliness and vigour. 
The returns of kindness is sweet, and there are neither 
honour nor virtue in resisting them. 

How rarely reason guides the stubborn choice ; 
Rule the bold hand, or prompt the suppliant voice. 



$ 73. SYNTAX. 117 

406. § 73. Rule XXIV. 1. Adverbs modify verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs (§ 33). 

2. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; thus 
" Thine often infirmities," should be " Thy fre- 
quent infirmities." 

407. Rem. 1. From, strictly speaking, should not be used before hence, thence 
and whence, because it is implied. Custom, however, has so far sanctioned the 
violation of this rulb, that a strict adherence to it would now appear stiff and 
affected. 

403. Rem. 2. After verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither, are now used 
only on solemn occasions. In other cases, the adverbs here, there, and where, 
are employed; as, He came here; We rode there. 

409. Rem. 3. Where should not be used for in which, unless the reference is 
to place; thus, " A protestation where," should be " A protestation in which." 
So is often used to represent an adjective, a noun, or a whole sentence ; as, They 
are rich, we are not so. He is a good scholar, and I told you so. 

410. Rem. 4. The adverbs now, then, vjhen, where, in such phrases as till 
now, till then, since when, to where, &c, are sometimes used by good writers as 
nouns. This, however, is inaccurate, and should not be imitated. 

411. Rem. 5. There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as a mere in- 
troductory expletive to the verb, when the nominative follows it ; as, " There are 
men who can not read ;" " There came to the beach. 7 ' (See § 34, 8.) 

412. Rem. 6. Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few others, 
are sometimes joined to substantives ; as, Not only the men, but the women 
also were innocent. 

EXERCISES. 

They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the 
war. He was befriended by the then reigning Duke. 
Some of my then hearers urged me to publish these 
lectures. Our friends arrived safely. 

Rem. 1. From whence come ye? He departed from 
thence into a desert place. I will send thee far from 
hence to the Gentiles. Where art thou gone? The city 
is near, O let me escape there. Where I am, there ye 
can not come. From whence we may likewise date 
the period of this event. He walked thither in less than 
an hour. 

3. He drew up a petition where he represented his 
own merit. He went to London last year, since when 
I have not seen him. The situation where I found him 



J 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 74 

413. §74. Rule XXV. Adverbs are for the most 
part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the 
simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the 
compound form ; as, He is very attentive, behaves 
well, and is much esteemed. 

414. Obs. 1. This is to be considered only as a general rale, to which there are 
many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the adverb can be given., 
which is not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys the 
meaning with most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed 
before the verb, or at some distance after it. Never, often, always, sometimes, 
generally precede the verb. Not, with the present participle, should generally 
be placed before it. Enough follows the adjective, and sometimes both follow 
the noun; thus, a solid enough reason, or, a reason solid en ough. 

415. Obs. 2. The improper position of the adverb only, often occasions ambi- 
guity. This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or clause, by 
placing it at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predi- 
cate, by placing it before the predicating term; and when it refers to a sutyect, 
by placing it after its name or description ; as, " Only acknowledge thine ini- 
quity;" " The thoughts of his heart are only evil;" " Take nothing for your 
/ourney but a staff only." These observations will generally be applicable to th«a 
words merely, solely, chiefly, first) at least, and perhaps to a few others. 

416 Obs. 3. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded. 

EXERCISES. 

We should not be overcome totally by present events. 
He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard at- 
tentively by the whole assembly. It can not be imper- 
tinent or ridiculous, therefore, to remonstrate. Not 
only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil 
also. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear 
carefully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. 

(Obs. 1.) The women contributed all their rings and 
jewels voluntarily to assist the government. Having 
not known, or having not considered the measures 
proposed, he failed of success. He was determined to 
invite back the king, and to call together his friends. 

(Obs. 2.) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 
By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single 
object, but the largeness of a whole view. Only you 
have I known, of all the nations of the earth. In using 
every exertion in our power for the public good, we 
only discharge our duty. 



§ 75. SYNTAX. 119 

417. § 75. Rule XXVI. Two negatives in the 
same sentence are improper, unless we mean to affirm; 
thus, U I can not by no means allow it," should be, 
44 1 cannot by any" — or " I canby no means allow it." 

The reason of this rule is, that one negative destroys another, or is equivalent 
to an affirmative. 

418. Rem.l. Sometimes two negatives are intended to affirm; and in this 
case, if one of them, such as dis-, in-\ im-, un-, &c. is prefixed to another word, 
a pleasing and delicate variety of expression is produced ; as, " Nor was the king 
unacquainted with his designs," i. e. he " was acquainted with them." But if 
the negative consists of two separate and detached words, the expression is ge- 
nerally harsh and inelegant; as, "Nor have I no money which I can spare," 
>. e. " I have money which I can spare." 

419. Rem. 2. In sentences coutaining double negatives, the intervention of 
mly, which is equivalent to a distinct clause, preserves the negation; as, " He 
was not only illiberal, but he was covetous." 

420. Note. The English language in this respect agrees with the Lathi, but 
differs from the Greek and French, in both of which, two negatives with the same 
subject render the negation stronger. 

EXERCISES. 
I can not drink no more. He can not do nothing. 
He will never be no taller. Covet neither riches nor 
honors, nor no such perishing things. Do not interrupt 
me thyself, nor let no one disturb me. I am resolved 
not to comply with the proposal, neither at present nor 
at any other time. I have received no information on 
the subj ect, neither from him nor from his friend. There 
can not be nothing more insignificant than vanity. Nor 
is danger apprehended in such a government, no more 
than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or 
earthquakes. Never no imitator came up to his author. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

James and I am cousins. Thy father's merits sets 
thee forth to view. That it is our duty to be pious, ad- 
mit not of any doubt. If he becomes rich, he may be 
less industrious. It was wrote extempore. Romulus, 
which founded Rome, killed his brother Remus. He in- 
volved in a troublesome lawsuit, a friend which had al- 
ways supported him. Who of you convinceth me of sin. 
I treat you as a boy who love to learn, and are ambi- 
tious of receiving instruction. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 76 

421. § 76. Rule XXVII. Appropriate preposi- 
tions must he used before names of places; thus, 

To — is used after a verb of motion ; as, He went to Spain. But it is omitted 

before home; as, He vjent home yesterday (307). 
In — is used before names of countries and large cities; as, He lives in Albany, 
in the State of New- York. But at is used before the names of places 
and large cities, after the verbs touchy arrive, land, and frequently after 
the verb to be ; as, He arrived at Liverpool — touched at New- York— -• 
landed at New- Orleans. I was at New- York. 
At — is used before the names of houses, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He is 

at home. Fie resides at the Mansion House, at Saratoga-Springs. 
422 Rem. 1. One inhabitant speaking of another's residence, says, " He lives 

in State-street;" or, if the word number be used, " at No. State-street. 

423. Rem. 2. Interjections sometimes have an objective after them, but they 
:iever govern it : it is always governed by a U'ansitive active verb, or preposition 
understood; as, "Ah me!" i. e. "Ah! what has happened to me.' /} The case 
after an interjection will always have to depend on the supplement to be made : 
it will generally, however, be the objective of theirs* personal pronoun, and the 
nominative of the second; as, "Ah me! O thou wretch! " (§ 80, Rule 2). 

EXERCISES. 

They have just arrived in Rochester, and are going to 
Buffalo. They will reside two months at England. I 
have been to London after having resided in France, and 
I now live at New- York. I was in the place appointed 
long before any of the rest. We touched in Liverpool 
on our way for New- York. I have been to home for a 
few days. We have been to home since morning. I 
will go to home to-morrow. 

[Rem. 1, 2.] He boards in No. 12, Dean street. He 
had lodgings at George's Square. Ah ! unhappy thee, 
who art deaf to the calls of duty and honor. Oh ! hap- 
py us, surrounded with so many blessings. Woe's I, 
for I am a man of unclean lips. 

Promiscuous. He has been expecting of us some time. 
Young persons need not be initiated in the language oi 
controversy. His quitting of the army was unexpected. 
I seen him yesterday. If there was no cowardice, there 
would be little insolence. I was rejoiced at the news. 
I shall do my friends no wrong, for I have none to lament 
me. They were descended from a family that came over 
with the Conqueror. 



$77. 



SYNTAX. 



121 



424. § 77. IIule XXVIII. Certain ivords and 
phrases must be followed by appropriate preposi- 
tions ; such as, 



Abhorrence of 

Accommodate to. 

Accord with. 

Accuse of. 

Acquit of. 

Adapted to. 

Agreeable to. 

Ask of a person,/or a thing, af- 
ter what we wish to hear of. 

Averse to or from. 

Believe in, sometimes on. 

Bestow upon, on. 

Betray to a person — into a thing. 

Boast of See Obs. 3. 

Call on a person — at a place. 

Change (exchange)/or, (alter) 
to, into. 

Charge a person with a thing, 
a thing on an agent. 

Compare with, in respect of 
quality — to, for illustration. 

Compliance with. 

Concur with a person-, in a 
measure; to an effect. 

Confide in. 

Conformable to, with. 

Consonant to. 

Conversant with men — in 
things •, about and among 
are less proper. 

Copy from a thing, — afters. 
person. 

Dependent upon, on. 

Derogative from. 

Derogatory to. 

Die of disease — by an instru- 
ment or violence. 

Differ from. , 

Difficulty in. 

Diminish from — diminution of. 

Disappointed in or of (§ 86, 5). 

Disapprove of. See Obs. 3. 

Discourage from. 

Discouragement to. 
11 



Dissent from. 

Eager in, on, for, after. 

Engage in a work— for a time. 

Equal to, with. 

Exception from, to. 

Expert in (before a noun), — at 

(before an active participle). 
Fall under. Obs. 1. 
Familiar to, with. A thing is 

familiar to us-, we, with it. 
Free from. 
Glad of something gained by 

ourselves, — at something that 

befalls another. 
Incorporate (active transitive) 

into; (intrans. or passive) with. 
Independent of. 
Indulge with what is not habit 

ual, in what is habitual. 
Insist upon. 
Intrude into an enclosed place*, 

upon what is not enclosed 
Made of 
Marry to. 
Martyr for. 
Need of. 
Observation of. 
Prejudice against. 
Prevail (to persuade) with, on s 

upon — ( to overcome) over, 

against. 
Profit by. 
Protect others from — ourselves 

against. 
Provide with or for. 
Reconcile to friendship — with (to 

make consistent). 
Reduce (to subdue) under, — in 

other cases, to ; as, to powder. 
Regard for; in regard to. 
Replete with. 
Resemblance to, 
Resolve on 
Rule over. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 77 

Rule XXVIII. continued. 

Sick of. Unite (transitive) to; (intransi- 
Sink into, beneath. tive) with. 

Swerve from. Value upon or on. 

Taste for or of (§ 86, 6). Vest wifA a thing possessed — in 
Tax with ( e. g. a crime ) — the possessor. 

for the state. Wait upon, on. 

Think of ox on. Worthy of. Obs. 3. 
True to. 

425. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The particular preposition which it is proper to use, often 
depends as much upon what follows as upon what goes before, 
thus, we say, To fall from a height — i ito a pit — to work — upon 
an enemy. 

2. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and denotes entrance. 
In is used when motion or rest in a place is signified; as, They 
went into a carriage, and travelled in it ten miles. 

3. Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used without of. 
JVorthy has sometimes of following it, and sometimes not. 

4. The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective 
usually follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa-, as, Cor; - 
fide in — confidence in — confident in. 



EXERCISES. 

He was very eager of recommending him to his fel- 
low citizens. He found great difficulty of writing. He 
accused the ministers for having betrayed the Dutch. 
This is certainly not a change to the better. The Eng- 
lish were a very different people then to what they are 
now. The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred 
text. It was intrusted to persons on whom Congress 
could confide. I completely dissent with the examiner. 
Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty 
There was no water, and he died for thirst. We can 
safely confide on none but the truly good. Many have 
profited from good advice. The error was occasioned 
by compliance to earnest entreaty. This is a principle 
in unison to our nature [Obs. 4]. This remark is in ac- 
cordance to truth. His parents think on him and his 
improvements with pleasure and hope. 



§ 77 SYNTAX. 123 

Exercises on Rule XXVIII. continued. 

You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving 
persons. The wisest persons need not think it any di- 
minution to their greatness, or derogation of their suffi- 
ciency, to rely upon counsel. It is consonant with our 
nature. He had no regard after his father's commands. 
There was a prejudice to his cause. There is no need 
for it. Reconciling himself with the king. They have 
no resemblance with each other. Upon such occasions 
as fell into their cognizance. I am engaged with pre- 
paring for a journey. We profit from experience. He 
is resolved of going to the Persian court. Expert about 
deceiving. The Romans reduced the world to their 
own power. He provided them in every thing. He 
►seems to have a taste of such studies. You are con- 
versant with that science. He is more conversant in 
men of science than in politicians. These are excep- 
tions of the general rule. He died for thirst. He died 
of the sword. He is glad of calamities. She is glad at 
his company. 

He saw your brother, and inquired from him for his 
friend's health. He was charged of being accessary to 
the murder. This is the first time we have been in- 
dulged in such a luxury . He indulges himself with the 
most pernicious habits. I hope I do not intrude into 
you. He will suffer no one to intrude upon his house. 
Is that a copy after nature ? If you copy from your 
father's example, you will do well. He has never been 
reconciled with his lot. How can such conduct be re- 
conciled to the principles he professes? It is proper 
that the people should be taxed with the support of 
government. Can not you prevail over your father to 
pay us a visit ? The enemy prevailed upon us by supe- 
rior force. Take care to protect yourself from the dan- 
gers which threaten you. The walls protected us 
against the fire of the enemy. He has now become fa- 
miliar to the rules of Grammar. Your countenance is 
familiar with me. The office of judge and advocate 
should not be vested with the same person. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 78 

426. § 78. Rule XXIX. In the use of verbs 
and words that in point of time relate to each other, 
the order of time must be observed; as, " I have 
known him these many years ; not, " I know him 
(or I knew him) these many years." 

427. Rem. The particular tense necessary to be used must de- 
pend upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to 
all cases. But it may be proper to observe, 

428. Obs. 1. An observation which is always true, must be ex- 
pressed in the present tense-, as, The stoics believed that M all 
crimes are equal" (§ 24, I. 2). 

429. Obs. 2. The present-perfect, and not the present tense, 
should be used in connection with words denoting an extent of 
time continued to the present-, thus, " They continue with me 
now three days, 11 should be, " have continued," etc. (§ 24, II. 1). 

430. Obs. 3. The present-perfect tense ought never to be used 
in connection with words which express past time-, thus, "Ihave 
formerly mentioned his attachment to study, 11 should be, " I for- 
merly mentioned,' 1 etc. (§ 24, III. 1). 

431. Obs. 4. The present and past of the auxiliaries, shall, 
will) may, can, should never be associated in the same sentence-, 
and care must be taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in 
the same tense with the antecedent verb-, thus, " I may or can do 
it now, if I choose ; " I might or could do it now, if I chose y 11 U I 
shall or will do it, when I can;" u I may do it, if I can /" u I 
once could do it, but I would not-, 11 u I would have done it then, 
but I could not. 11 " I mention it to him, that he may stop if he 
choose ;" u I mentioned it to him, that he might stop if he chose;" 
u I have mentioned it to him, that he may stop-, 11 " I had men- 
tioned it to him, that he might stop-. 11 u I had mentioned it to 
him, that he might have stopped, had he chosen." 

432. Note 1. When should is used instead of ought, to express present duty 

(172), it may be followed by the present; as, " You should 9tudy that you may 
become learned.' ; 

433. Note 2. The verb had is sometimes used for would; thus, M I had rather 

do it," for " I would rather do it." This should not be imitated. 

434. Note 3. Would and should are sometimes, in common language, used as 

if they were almost expletives ; thus, " It would seem," for " It seems." 

435. Obs. 5. The indicative present is frequently used after 
the words when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the 
relative time of a future action (§ 24, 1. 5)-, as, " When he 



§ 78. SYNTAX. 125 

comes, he vail be welcome." When placed before the present- 
perfect indicative, these words denote the completion of a future 
action or event : as. ;; He will never be better, till he has felt 
the pangs of poverty." 

436. Obs, 6. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the pre- 
sent tense, when it expresses what is contemporary in point of 
time with its governing verb, or subsequent to it-, as, ''He ap- 
peared to be a man of letters:" :w The Apostles were determined 
topreach the gospel." 

437. Obs. 7. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express 
what is antecedent to the time of the governing verb: as, ;t Ro- 
mulus is said to have founded Rome.'' 

EXERCISES. 

1. The doctor said., in Ms lecture, that fever always 
produced thirst. The philosopher said that heat always 
expanded metals. He said that truth was immutable. 

2. I know the family more than twenty years. I am 
now at school six months. My brother was sick four 
weeks, and is no better. He tells lies long enough. 

3. He has lately lost an only son. He has been for- 
merly very disorderly. I have been at London last 
year, and seen the king last summer. I have once or 
twice last week told the story to our friend. 

4. I should be obliged to him., if he will gratify me 
in that particular. Ye will not come to me that ye 
might have life Be wise and good that you might be 
happy. He was told his danger, that he may shun it. 

[Note 1.] We should respect those persons, because 
they continued long attached to us. He should study 
diligently, that he might become learned. 2. I had ra- 
ther go now than afterwards. He had better do it soon. 

5. We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. As 
soon as he shall return, we will recommence our studies. 
A prisoner is not accounted guilty, till he be convicted. 

6. From the conversation I had with him, he ap- 
peared to have been a man of learning. Our friends in- 
tended to have met us. He was afraid he would have died. 

7. Kirstall Abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an 
extensive building. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is 
said to be born in the 926th year before Christ. 

11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 79. 

438. § 79. Rule XXX. When a member of a 
sentence refers to two different clauses, it should be 
equally applicable to both ; as, He has not been, and 
can not be, censured for such conduct. 

439. This rule is often violated in sentences in which there are 
two comparisons of a different nature and government-, thus, 
" He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio." 
Here, as Cinthio is applicable to the clause so much admired, but 
can not be connected with more beloved. In such sentences, the 
proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member, 
and leave that of the second understood-, as, u He was more be- 
loved than Cinthio, but not so much admired 1 ' (as Cinthio). 

440. A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement 
should be carefully attended to. 

EXERCISES. 

This dedication may serve for almost any book that 
has, or ever shall be published. Will it be urged that 
these books are as old, or even older than tradition. He 
is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as 
his companion. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more 
valuable, than knowledge. No person was ever so per- 
plexed, or sustained the mortifications as he has done to- 
day. Neither has he, nor any other persons suspected 
so much dissimulation. The intentions of some of these 
philosophers, nay, of many, might and probably were 
good. The reward is due, and it has already, or will 
hereafter be given to him. This book is preferable, and 
cheaper than the other. He either has, or will obtain the 
prize. He acted both suitably and consistently with his 
profession. The first proposal was essentially different, 
and inferior to the second. He contrives better, but does 
riot execute so well as his brother. There are principles 
m man which ever have, and ever will incline him to 
offend. The greatest masters of critical learning differ 
and contend against one another. The winter has not, 
and probably will not be so severe as was expected. 
He is more friendly in his disposition, but not so dis- 
tinguished for talents, as his brother. 



9 80. SYNTAX* 127 

441. § 80. Rule XXXI. A substantive whose 
case depends on no other word, is put in the nomina- 
tive. This occurs under the four following 

SPECIAL RULES. 

442. Rule 1. A substantive with a participle, whose case de- 
pends on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute ; as 
41 He being gone, only two remain. " 

443. Rule 2. A person or thing addressed, without a verb ot 
governing word, is put in the nominative independent ; as, u I 
remain, dear sir, yours truly-," " Plato, thou reasonest well." 

444. Rule 3. A substantive, unconnected in mere exclamation, 
is put in the nominative independent ; as, Cl O the times J the 
manners /" 

445. Rule 4. A substantive, used by pleonasm before an af- 
firmation, is put in the nominative independent ; as, " The boy 
oh! where was he?" 

446. Rem. 1. Under this rule a mistake can be made only in the case of pronouns. 

447. Rem. 2. The substantive is sometimes understood ; a?, Generally speak- 
ing, i. e. We. His conduct, viewing it in the most favorable light, reflects dis- 
credit on his character, i. e. tve, men, or a person viewing it, &c. 

EXERCISES. 

He made as wise proverbs as any body since, him 
only excepted. Them descending, the ladder fell. 
Whom being dead, we shall come. But them being ab- 
sent, we can not come to a determination. 



Whose grey top 



Shall tremble, him descending. 

The bleating sheep with my complaints agree •. 
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. 

Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the sewing train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display ; 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

So great ^Eneas rushes to the fight, 

Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold, 

Him fresh in youth, and me in arms grown old. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $ SI 

448. § 81. Rule XXXII. 1. The article a or an 
is put before common nouns in the singular number, 
when used indefinitely ; as, "A man;" " An ap- 
ple;" that is, " any man;" "any apple." 

% The article the is put before common nouns, 
either singular or plural, when used definitely ; 
as, "The sun rises." "The city of New-York." 

449. It is impossible to give a precise rule for the use of the 
article in every case. The best general rule is to observe what 
the sense requires. The following usages may be noticed. 

1. The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a whole 
species ; as, Man is mortal , and before the names of minerals, 
metals, arts, etc. Some nouns denoting the species, have the 
article always prefixed-, as, The dog is a more grateful animal 
than the cat. The lion is a noble animal. 

2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have no 
article when they both refer to one person or thing ; as, He is a 
better reader than writer. 

3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to the 
same subject, the article should be placed before the first, and 
omitted before the rest-, as, A red and white rose, i. e. a rose, 
some parts of which are red, and others white. But when the 
adjectives or epithets belong to different subjects, the article 
should be prefixed to each-, as, a red and a white rose, i. e. a red 
rose and a white rose. u Johnson, the bookseller and stationer," 
indicates one person-, " Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," 
would indicate two different persons. App. XXI. 

Note. The same remark may be made respecting the demonstrative pronouns; 
as, " That great and good man," means only one man. That great and tlia\ 
good man, means tioo / the one great, and the other good. 

4. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made, by the 
use or omission of the article a before the words few, little. If J 
Bay, u He behaved with a little reverence," the expression is 
positive, and implies a degree of praise. But if I say, u He be 
haved with little reverence," the expression is negative, and im- 
plies a degree of blame. 

5 A has sometimes the meaning of every or each ; as, twelve shillings a dozen, 
two hundred pounds a year ; i. e. every dozen, every year. 

6. The antecedent to a restrictive clause is preceded by the definite article ; as 
" All tlie pupils that were present did well." 

7. The is sometimes used before the comparative and the superlative degree both 
cf adverbs and adjectives; as, The more I study grammar, the better I like it 



$ 81. SYNTAX. 129 

Rule XXXII. Continued. 
EXERCISES 

ON THE IMPROPER USE AND OMISSION OF THE ARTICLES. 

1. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
The gold is corrupting. A man is the noblest work of 
the creation. Wisest and best men are sometimes be- 
trayed into errors. We must act our part with a con- 
stancy , though reward of our constancy be distant. 
There are some evils of life w^hich equally affect prince 
and people. The purity has its seat in the heart, but 
extends its influence over so much of outward conduct 
as to form the great and material part of a character. 
At worst I could incur but a gentle reprimand. The 
profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good 
husband, the good father, or the beneficent neighbour 

2. A man may be a better soldier than a logician. 
There is much truth in the old adage, that fire is a bet 
ter servant than a master. He is not so good a poet as 
a historian. 

3. Thomson the watchmaker, and the jeweller from 
London, was of the party. A red and a white flag was 
displayed from the tower. A beautiful stream flows 
between the new and old mansion. A hot and cold 
spring were found in the same neighbourhood. The 
young and old man seem to be on good terms. The 
bill equally concerns the manufacturer and consumer. 

4. He has been much censured for paying a little at- 
tention to his business. So bold a breach of order called 
for little severity in punishing the offender. 

5. A shilling for every dozen is a moderate price. I 
would not undertake to walk twenty miles each day for 
three months. A guinea every week. 

6. Persons who suffered by this calamity, have been 
much commiserated. Foreign travel, and things which 
he has seen, have enlarged his views. The proprietors 
are responsible for all parcels that are committed to 
their care. All persons who were consulted, were of 
this opinion. Members who do not appear, must be 
fined. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 82 

450 § 82. XXXIII. An ellipsis or omission of 
words is admissible, when they can be supplied in 
the mind with such certainty and readiness as not to 
obscure the sense. Thus, instead of saying, " He 
was a learned man, and he was a wise man, and 
he was a good man ;" we say, "He was a learned, 
wise, and good man." 

451. Obs. It may be regarded as a rule proper to be kept 
steadily in view, that the fewer the words by which we can express 
our ideas, the better, provided the meaning be clearly brought out. 

452. Rem. The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used 
alone to represent the verb-, as, " We have done it, but thou hast 
not-," i. e. thou hast not done it. 

453. The verb to be, with its subject, in dependent clauses, is 
often omitted after the connectives if, though, yet, when, &c. ; as, 
" Study, if [it is~\ neglected, becomes irksome." — " Though [he was] 
poor, he was honest." 

EXERCISES. 

He sent me the books and the papers which he pro- 
mised. He has a house and a garden in the country. 
These counsels were the dictates of virtue and the dic- 
tates of true honor. Such conduct is contrary to the 
laws of God, and to the laws of man. His crimes brought 
him into extreme distress and into extreme perplexity. 
He was blessed with an affectionate father and an af- 
fectionate mother. His reputation and his estate are 
both lost by gambling. He is temperate, he is disinterest- 
ed, he is benevolent. This is the man whom we met 
and whom we invited to our house. Genuine virtue 
supposes our benevolence and our usefulness to be 
strengthened and to be confirmed hy principle. Perseve- 
rance in laudable pursuits will reward our toils, and 
will produce effects beyond our expectation. We often 
commend imprudently as well as censure imprudently. 
Changes are often taking place in men and in manners, 
in opinions and in customs. 

[Rem.] He regards the truth, but thou dost not regard 
it. They must be punished, and they shall be punished* 
We succeeded, but they did not succeed 



$ 83. SYNTAX. 131 

. 454. § 83. Rule XXXIV. An ellipsis is not al- 
lowable when it would obscure the sentence, weaken 
its force, or be attended with an impropriety ; as, 
We are inclined to flatter {those) who flatter us. 

455. Rem. 1. In general, no word should be omitted that is ne- 
cessary to the full and correct construction, or even harmony of a 
sentence. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, should always be 
repeated when the words with which they stand connected are 
used emphatically. Even nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, 
must often, under such circumstances, be repeated-, as, " Not only 
the year, but the day and the hour were appointed." 

456. Rem. 2. It is generally improper (except in poetry) to 
omit the antecedent to a relative 5 and always, to omit a relative 
when of the nominative case. 

457. Rem. 3. The article should be repeated, when a different 
form of it is required-, as, "A horse and an ass." 

EXERCISES. 

I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. His 
honor, interest, religion, were^ail embarked in this un- 
dertaking. The more I see of his conduct, I like him 
better. It is not only the duty, but interest of young 
persons to be studious and diligent. Without firmness, 
nothing that is great can be undertaken ; that is difficult 
or hazardous, accomplished. That species of commerce 
will produce great gain or loss. Many days or even 
weeks pass away unimproved. The people of this coun- 
try possess a healthy climate and soil. I have bought 
a house and orchard. His conduct is not scandalous, 
and that is the best can be said of it. The captain had 
several men died in his ship. They enjoy a free con- 
stitution and laws. That is a property most men have, 
or at least may attain. *A noble spirit disdaineth the 
malice of fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast 
down. Charles was a man of learning, knowledge, and 
benevolence ; and what is more, a true christian. The 
team consisted of a black and white horse. A beauti- 
ful round and square table were exhibited. 

* "A noble spirit," &c, should be, " A man of a noble spirit." It would be 
improper to speak of the 3oul of a spirit 



133 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 84 

§ 84. SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 
458. Syntactical parsing includes Etymolo- 
gical, and adds to it a statement of the relation in 
which words stand to each other, and the rules 
according to which they are combined in phrases 
and sentences. 

459. The method of parsing each part of speech etymologically, 
has been pointed out under each ; viz. Nouns, No. 89 j Article, un- 
der 97-, Adjective, 110; Pronouns, viz. personal, 115 ; relative, 
123 5 adjective, 145 5 Verb, 205; Adverb, 231; Prepositions, 237; 
Interjection, 240; and Conjunctions, 248. Also, specimens of 
Etymological parsing are given, § 39. The method of parsing 
each part of speech syntactically will be seen from the following 

SPECIMEN OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING.* 

460. Psalm cxi. 10. " The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of wisdom; and a good understanding 
have all they that do his commandments : His 
praise endnreth forever." 

461. This sentence contains all the parts of speech 
except the interjection, and may be analyzed thus: 

u The fear of the Lord," etc. This is a compound sentence, 
consisting of the three following parts, viz. 

1. "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 

This is a simple sentence. 

The logical subject is, The fear of the Lord 

The logical predicate is, is the beginning of wisdom 

The grammatical subject is, fear. It is limited by the adjunct, of the Lord, and 

shown to be limited by the article the (App. VII). 
The grammatical predicate is, is beginning, in which is is the verb or copula, 

and beginning, the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of wisdom, and 

shown to be limited by the. 

*In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is quite unnecessary to repeat the 
words gender, number, mood, tense ; thus, masculine gender, singular number, 
Sec. : the meaning being sufficiently indicated by the terms masculine, feminine, 
neuter, singular, pluial, indicative, potential, &c; present, past, future, Sec; 
and it has the advantage of saving much lime. For the same reason, it may be 
proper to omit the terms, proper and common, before nouns* and the mention of 



§ 84. SYNTAX. 133 

2, "And a good understanding have all they that do 
his commandments." 

This is a compound sentence, connected with the preceding by and ; it contains 
one leading and one dependent clause, connected by that. 
The independent clause is, " All they have a good understanding. " 
The dependent clause is, " that do his commandments. n 
In the first or leading clause, 
The logical subject is, all they. 
The logical predicate is, have a goad understanding. 
The grammatical subject is, they, qualified by all. 

The grammatical predicate is, have, modified by its object, understandings 
which is qualified by its adjective, good} and shewn to be indefinite by the 
article a. 
In the dependent clause, 
The logical subject is the relative that, which connects the dependent with the 

antecedent clause. 
The logical predicate is, do his commandments. 
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. ■ 

The grammatical predicate is do, modified by its object, cominandnuntt A 
which again is limited by the possessive, his. 

3. "His praise endureth forever." 

This is a simple sentence, of which 

The logical subject is, his praise. *-- \ 

The logical predicate is, endureth forever. 

The grammatical subject is, praise, qualified by his. 

The grammatical predicate is, endureth) modified, in respect of time, by forever 

462. The sentence thus analyzed, may be parsed 
syntactically as follows : 

The is the definite article ; it belongs to/aar, and shews it to be limited. 

Rule XXXII. 2. The article the, &c. 
Hear"" • • is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of is. § 47 

Rule I. The subject of a verb, ice. 
qf- • • is a preposition,whieh shows the relation betwaen Lord, the s*b*e* 

quent, and fear, the antecedent term. 
the is the definite article ; it belongs to Lord, and shews it to be definite ; 

it is rendered so by eminence. Rule XXXII. 2. 
Lord ••*• is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, governed by qf. 

Rule HI. Prepositions govern, &c. 

person, except when the noun is in the first or second person. The conjugatiojj 
of regular verbs may also be omitted, because their being regular, sufficiently in- 
dicates their principal parts. When the verb is passive, parse thus : " A vei* 
transitive, in the passive voice, regular, irregular," &c, 

12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § S4 

&........ ,j 3 a verb intransitive, irregular, am, was, been,- it is found in the 

present indicative active, third person singular, and agrees with its 
subject/ear Rule I. A verb agrees, &c. 

the is the definite article ; it belongs to beginning, and shews it to be 

used definitely ; it is rendered so by the adjunct, of wisdom. 

beginning is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and is the predicate . 
nominative after is. Rule XIII. The predicate substantive after a 
verb, &c. 

of. ........ ^ a preposition ; it shews the relation between tvisdom, the subse. 

quent, and beginning, the antecedent term. 

wisdom-" is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, governed by of Rule 
III. A preposition, &c. 

and is a copulative conjunction ; it connects the following compound, with 

the preceding simple sentence. Rule XX. 1. Conjunctions connect, etc. 

o is the indefinite article ; it belongs to understanding, and shews it to 

be used indefinitely. Rule XXXII. 1. The article a or an, &c. 

good An adjective, compared irregularly, good, better, best; it qualifies un- 
derstanding. Rule VIII. An adjective qualifies, &c. 

understanding is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, the object of, and go- 
verned bv have. Rule II. A transitive verb, &c. 

have-"* . is a verb transitive, irregular, have, had, had; it is found in the pre- 
sent indicative active, third person plural, and agrees with its subject, 
they. Rule I. A verb agrees, &c. 

«8 is an indefinite adjective pronoun, and qualifies they. Rule VIIT. An 

adjective qualifies, Sccft 

they is a personal pronoun, irMBculine or feminine, in the nominative plural 

put for persons, and is the subject of have. § 47, Rule I. The subject 
of a verb, &c ^ 

that is a relative pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the msminative plural, 

the subject of do. § 47, Rule I. It is used for who (330), and agrees 
with its antecedent they. Rule XI. The relative agrees, &c. It 
connects its clause with its antecedent they, restricting it. 

do is a verb, transitive, irregular, do, did, done; it is found in the pre. 

sent indicative active, third person plural, and agrees with its subject, 
that. Rule I. A verb agrees, &c. 

his is a possessive adjective pronoun,, standing for Lord's, and qualifying 

commandments. Rule VIII. An adjective, &c. 

eommandments, is a noun, neuter, in the objective plural ; the object of, and go- 
verned by do. Rule II. A transitive verb, &c. 

His •••••• is a possessive adjective pronoun, as before, qualifies praise. Rule 

VIII. An adjective, &c. 

praise • • • • is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of endureth, 
$ 47, Rule I. The subject of a verb, &c. 

endureth'* is a verb, intransitive, regular ; it is in the present indicative active 
third person singular, and agrees with its subject praise Rule I 
A verb agrees, Sec. 

fir+ever" • • is an adverb of time, and modifies endureth. Rul^XXIV. Adverbs, &c 



PROMIS.] SVNTAX. 135 

§ 85. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.* 

ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 
Note. The following exercises, after being corrected, or in th& 
time of correcting, may be used as exercises in Syntactical Parsing, 

1. John writes pretty. I shall nevei do so no more. 
The train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was you 
present at last meeting ? He need not to be in so much 
haste (201). He dare not act otherwise than he does. 
Him whom they seek is in the house. George or I is 
the person. They or he is much to be blamed. The 
troop consist of fifty men. Those set of books was a 
valuable present. That pillar is sixty foot high. His 
conduct evinced the most extreme vanity. These trees* 
are remarkable tall. He acted bolder than was expec- 
ted. This is he who I gave the book to. Eliza always 
appears amiably. Who do you lodge with now ? He 
was born at London, but he died in Bath. If he be sin- 
cere I am satisfied. Her father and her were at church. 
The master requested him and I to read more distinctly. 
It is no more but his due. 

2. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free 
of pain. Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the 
son of Jesse was the youngest of his brothers. You 
was very kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what does 
thou think of him now ? James is one of those boys 
that was kept in at school, for bad behavior. Thou, 
James, did deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come 
of themselves. We need not to be afraid. He expected 
to have gained more by the bargain. You should drink 
plenty of goat milk. It was him who spoke first. Do 
you like ass milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who did 
you buy your grammar from ? If one takes a wrong 
method at first setting out, it will lead them astray. 
Neither man nor woman were present. I am more tal- 
ler than you. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. 
After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a 

*Note. — In the following, as well as in the preceding exercises, some sen. 
tences are taken from the Bible, containing expressions which, though authorized 
when that excellent translation was made, have now become obsolete. They »»* 
introduced here to be changed into the form which modern usage requires. 



I3t) ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ]_PROMIS. 

Pharisee. Is not thy wickedness great ? and thine ini • 
quities infinite ? There was more sophists than one. If 
a person have lived twenty or thirty years, he should 
have some experience. If this were his meaning, the 
prediction has failed. Fidelity and truth is the founda- 
tion of all justice. His associates in wickedness will 
not fail to mark the alteration of his conduct. Thy 
rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 

3. And when they had lift up their eyes, they saw no 
man, save Jesus only. Strive not with a man without 
cause, if he have done thee no harm. Now both the 
chief priests and Pharisees had given a commandment, 
that if any man knew where he were, he should show 
it, that they might take him. The girl, her book is 
torn in pieces. It is not me who he is in love with. 
He wiiich commands himself, commands the whole 
world. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 

4. The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor. 
Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. I have 
drunk no spirituous liquors this six years. He is taller 
than me, but I am stronger than him. Solid peace and 
contentment consists neither in beauty nor riches, but ' 
in the favor of God. After who is the King of Israel 
come out? The reciprocations of love and friendship 
between he and I, have been many and sincere. Abuse 
of mercies ripen us for judgment. Peter and John is 
not at school to-day. Three of them was taken into 
custody. To study diligently, and behave genteelly, is 
commendable. The enemies who we have most to fear 
are those of our own hearts. Regulus was reckoned 
the most consummate w^arrior which Rome could then 
produce. Suppose life never so long, fresh accessions 
of knowledge may still be made. 

5. Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible can 
tell me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor 
the scholars is reading. Trust not him whom you know 
is dishonest. I love no interests but that of truth and 
virtue. Every imagination of the thoughts of the heart 
are evil continually. No one can be blamed for taking 
due care of their health. They crucified him, and two 



PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 137 

others with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the 
midst. None can be blamed for taking care of his health. 

6. I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. 
He that is diligent you should commend. There was 
an earthquake which made the earth to tremble. And 
God said to Solomon, Wisdom and knowledge is granted 
unto thee, &c. I could not commend him for justifying 
hisself when he knows that his conduct was so very im- 
proper. He was very much made on at school ; Though 
he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things 
which he suffered. If he is alone, tell him the news ; 
but if there is any body with him, do not tell him. They 
ride faster than us. Though the measure be myste- 
rious, it is worthy of attention. If he does but approve 
my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. Was it him 
who came last ? Yes, it was him. 

Forever in this humble cell, 

Let thee and I, my fair one, dwell. 

7. Every man should act suitable to his character and 
station in life. His arguments were exceeding clear. I 
only spoke three words on that subject. The ant and 
the bee sets a good example before lazy boys. Neither 
in this world, neither in the world to come. Evil com- 
munications corrupts good manners. Hannibal was 
one of the greatest generals whom the world ever saw. 
The middle station of life seems to be the most advan- 
tageous for gaining of wisdom. 

8. These are the rules of grammar, by the observing 
which you may avoid mistakes. The king conferred 
upon him the title of a duke. My exercises are not 
well wrote. I do not hold my pen good. Grammar 
teaches us to speak proper. She accused her companion 
for having betrayed her. I will not dissent with her 
Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path of duty 
and honor. Who shall I give it to ? Who are you look- 
ing for? It is a diminution to, or a derogation of their 
judgment. It fell into their notice. She values herself 
for her fortune. That is a book which I am much 
pleased with. I have been to see the coronation, and 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. }PROM13. 

a fine sight it was. That portrait of the emperor's is a 
very exact resemblance of him. Every thing that we 
here enjoy, change, decay, and come to an end. It is not 
him they blame so much. 

9. No people has more faults than they that pretend 
to have none. The laws of Draco is said to have been 
wrote with blood. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I 
need not explain it. She taught him and I to read. The 
more greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the 
more dangerous he is to society, and the more less fit 
for a companion. Each has their own faults, and every 
one should endeavor to correct their own. Let your 
promises be few, and such that you can perform. 

10. His being at an enmity with Caesar and Antony, 
were the cause of perpetual discord. Their being 
forced to their books in an age at enmity with all re- 
straint, have been the reason why many have hated 
books all their lives. There was a coffee-house at that 
end of the town, in which several gentlemen used to 
meet of an evening. Do not despise the state of the 
poor, lest it becomes your own condition. It was his 
duty to have interposed his authority in an affair of so 
much importance. He spent his whole life in the doing 
good. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and 
conversed with the erectors of this occasional club, 
were invited to pass an evening when they thought fit. 
The winter has not been so severe as we expected it to 
have been. The rest (of the stars) in circuit walls this 
universe. Sir, if thou have borne hence, tell me where 
thou hast laid him. 

11. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them 
robbery or murder. She and you were not mistaken in 
her conjectures. My sister and I, as well as my bro- 
ther, are employed in their respective occupations. He 
repents him of that indiscreet action. It was me, and 
not him, that wrote it. Art thou him ? I will take care 
that no one shall suffer no injury. I am a man who 
approves of wholesome discipline, and who recommend 
it to others ; but I am not a person who promotes se- 
verity, or who object to mild and generous treatment. 



PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 139 

This jackanapes has hit me in a right place enough. 
Prosperity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very much 
obstructs the knowledge of ourselves. To do to others 
as we would that they should do to us, it is our duty. 
This grammar was purchased at Ogle's the bookseller s. 
The council was not unanimous. 

12. Who spilt the ink upon the table? Him. Who 
lost this book? Me. Whose pen is this ? John. There 
is in fact no impersonal verbs in any language. And 
he spitted on the ground and anointed his eyes. Had 
I never seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship 
Mary and Ann were restored to their owners. If we 
consult the improvement of mind, or the health of body, 
it is well known exercise is the great instrument for 
promoting both. A man may see a metaphor or an al- 
legory in a picture, as well as read them in a description. 

13. I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by 
the fire, but she opened to me the reason of her visit. 
A prudent wife, she shall be blessed. The house you 
speak of, it cost me five hundred pounds. Did I not 
tell thee, thee infamous wretch! that thou would 
bring me to ruin ? Not only the counsel's and attorney's, 
but the judge's opinion also, favored his cause. It was 
the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great 
calamities. That is the eldest son of the King of Eng- 
land's. Lord Feversham's the general's tent. This 
palace had been the Grand Sultan's Mahomet's. They 
did not every man cast away the abomination of their 
eyes. 

14. *I am purposed. He is arrived. They were de- 
serted from their regiment. Whose works are these ? 
They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. The 
mighty rivals are now at length agreed. The time of 
William making the experiment, at length arrived. If 
we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall pre 
sently be sensible of the melody suffering. This portrait 

*Rule. It is improper to use an intransitive verb in the passive jorrn. Thus, 
I am purposed ; He .is arrived ; should be, I have purposed— He has arrived 
From this rule there are a number of exceptions ; for it is allowable to say 
is come ; She is goae, &c. $ 49, II. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR* [PRCLWIS. 

of the king's does not much resemble him. These pic- 
tures of the king were sent to him from Italy. He who 
committed the offence, thou shouldst correct, not I, who 
am innocent. 

15. But, Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus, 
Was not with them when Jesus came. I offer observa- 
tions, that a long and chequered pilgrimage have ena- 
bled me to make on man. When I visited Europe, I 
returned to America. Clelia is a vain woman, whom, 
if we do not flatter, she will be disgusted. In his con- 
duct was treachery, and in his words, faithless profes- 
sions. The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves 
on so popular a subject. He acted conformable with 
his instructions, and can not be censured justly. 

16. No person could speak stronger on this subject, 
nor behave nobler, than our young advocate, for the 
cause of toleration. They were studious to ingratiate 
with those who it was dishonorable to favor. The house 
framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with great 
freedom of the king's prerogative. Neither flatter or 
contemn the rich or the great. Many would exchange 
gladly their honors, beauty, and riches, for that more 
quiet and humbler station, which thou art now dissa- 
tisfied with. High hopes, and ambitious views, is a great 
enemy to tranquillity. Many persons will not believe 
but what they are free from prejudices. I will lay me 
down in peace, and take my rest. This word I have 
only found in Spenser. The king being apprised of the 
conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 

17. A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken 
the mind. James was resolved to not indulge himself 
in such a cruel amusement. They admired the country- 
man's, as they called him, candor and uprightness. 
The pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from those 
of another. The court of Spain, who gave the order, 
were not aware of the consequences. There was much 
spoke and wrote on each side of the question ; but I 
have chose to suspend my decision. 

18. Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion 
sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down 



PROMIS.J SYNTAX. 141 

to a poor pitiable speck of earth ; this opens for them a 
prospect to the skies. Temperance and exercise, how- 
soever little they may be regarded, they are the best 
means of preserving health. To despise others on ac- 
count of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our 
wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. This task was 
the easier performed, from the cheerfulness with which 
he engaged in it. These counsels were the dictates of 
virtue, and the dictates of true honor. As his misfor- 
tunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few persons 
pitied him. And they were judged every man according 
to their works. Riches is the bane of human happiness. 
I wrote to my brother before I received his letter. 

19. WhenGarrick appeared, Peter was for sometime 
in doubt whether it could be him or not. Was you liv- 
ing contented in spiritual darkness ? The company was 
very numerous. Shall the throne of iniquity have fel- 
lowship with thee, which frameth mischief by a law? 
Where is the security that evil habits will be ever bro- 
ken ? Each of them bring material to the place. Nor 
let no comforter delight my ear. She was six years older 
than him. They were obliged to contribute more than 
us. The Barons had little more to rely on, besides the 
power of their families. The sewers must be kept so 
clear, as the water may run away. Such among us who 
follow that profession. No body is so sanguine to hope 
for it. She behaved unkinder than I expected. Agree- 
able to your request, I send this letter. She is exceed- 
ing fair. Thomas is not as docile as his sister. There 
was no other book but his. He died by a fever. Among 
whom was Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of 
James. My sister and I waited till they were called. 
The army were drawn up in haste. The public is re- 
spectfully informed that, &c. The friends and amuse- 
ments which he preferred corrupted his morals. Each 
must answer for themselves. Henry, though at first he 
showed an unwillingness, yet afterwards he granted his 
request. 

20. Him and her live very happily together. She 
invited Jane and I to see her new dress. She uttered 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 

such cries that pierced the heart of every one who heard 
them. Maria is not clever as her sister Ann. Though 
he promises ever so solemnly, I will not believe him. 
The full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness, 
but he opened to them the gate of paradise. It render- 
ed the progress very slow of the new invention. This 
book is Thomas', that is James'. Socrates 's wisdom has 
been the subject of many a conversation. Fare thee 
well, James. Who, who has the judgment of a man, 
would have drawn such an inference ? George was the 
most diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have ob- 
served some children to use deceit. He durst not to 
displease his master. The hopeless delinquents might, 
each in their turn, adopt the expostulatory language of 
Job. Several of our English words, some centuries ago, 
had different meanings to those they have now. And I 
was afraid, and went and hid thy talent in the earth ; lo, 
there thou hast that is thine. With this booty he made 
off to a distant part of the country, where he had reason 
to believe that neither he nor his master were known. 
Thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory. I have 
been at London. 

21. Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we 
most esteem? — he who strives to correct his scholars 
by prudent advice and motives of honor, or he who will 
lash them severely for not repeating their lessons as they 
ought? The blessing of the Lord it maketh rich, and 
he addeth no sorrow with it. For if there be first a 
willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath, 
and not according to that he has not. If a brother or 
a sister be naked and destitute of daily food, and one of 
you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and 
filled ; notwithstanding if ye give them not those things 
which are needful to the body, what doth it profit ? 340. 

22. But she always behaved with great severity to 
her maids ; and if any of them were negligent of their 
duty, or made a slip in their conduct, nothing would 
serve her but burying the poor girls alive. He had no 
master to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the 
writings of Moses and the prophets, and had received 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 143 

no lessons from the Socrates's,* the Plato's and the Con- 
fucius's of the age. They that honor me, I will honor. 
For the poor always ye have with you. 

23. The first Christians of the Gentile world made a 
simple and entire transition from a state as bad, if not 
worse, than that of entire ignorance, to the Christianity 
of the New Testament. And he said unto Gideon, every 
one that lappeth of the water with his tongue, as a dog 
lappeth, him shalt thou set by himself. 

The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as was 
expected. Milton seems to have been well acquainted 
with his own genius, and to know what it was that na- 
ture had bestowed upon him more bountifully than upon 
others. 

24. And on the morrow, because he would have known 
the certainty wherefore he was accused! °f the Jews, 
he loosed him frem his bonds, 

Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear, 
Here stormed contention, and here fury frowned: 
The Cretan javelin reached him from afar, j 
And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car. 

Nor is it then a welcome guest, affording only an uneasy 
sensation, and brings always with it a mixture of con- 
cern and compassion. 

He onlyj promised me a loan of the book for two 
days. I was once thinking to have written a poem. 

25. A very slow child will often be found to get les- 
sons by heart as soon as, nay sometimes sooner than, 
one who is ten times as intelligent. 

It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive facul- 
ties, that we only can attain those powers of concep- 
tion which are essential to taste. 

No man is fit for free conversation for the inquiry 

♦The possessive case must not be used for the plural number. In this quotation 
from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names should have been 
pluralized like common nouns ; thus. From the Socrateses, the Platoes, and the 
Confuciuses of the age. 

j Accused requires of before the crime, and by before the person accusing. 

jThis sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be made to ex- 
press ether four by placing only after me, or loan* or book, or days 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 

after truth if he be exceedingly reserved; if he be 
haughty and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive 
and dogmatical in his opinions ; if he be one who always 
affects to outshine all the company; if he be fretful 
and peevish ; if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or 
quirks, or quibbles. 

26. Conversation is the business, and let every one 
that please add their opinion freely. There are many 
more shining qualities in the mind of man, but there is 
none so useful as discretion. 

Mr. Locke having been introduced by Lord Shafts- 
bury to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Halifax, 
these three noblemen, instead of conversing with the 
philosopher on literary subjects, in a very short time 
sat down to cards. 

BAD ARRANGEMENT. 

27. It is your light fantastic fools, who have neither 
heads nor hearts, in both sexes, who, by dressing their 
bodies out of all shape, render themselves ridiculous 
and contemptible. 

And how can brethren hope to partake of their pa- 
rent's blessing, that curse each other. 

The superiority of others over us, though in trivial 
concerns, never fails to mortify our vanity, and give 
us vexation, as Nicol admirably observes. 

Likewise also the chief priests, mocking, said among 
themselves, with the scribes, He saved others ; himself 
he can not save. 

Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the only 
persons preserved from the flood. 

It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined age, 
the wonderful civilities that have passed between the 
nation of authors, and that of readers. 

And they said among themselves, Who shall roll us 
away the stone from the door of the sepulchre ? And 
when they had looked, they saw that the stone was 
rolled away: for it was very great. 

A great stone that I happened to find, after a long 
search, by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor 



PROMIS.J &YNTAX. 145 

It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the 
point. Wanted a young man to take care of some hor- 
ses, of a religious turn of mind. The following verses 
were written by a young man who has long lain in the 
grave, for his own amusement. He rode to town and 
drove twelve cows on horseback. 

BAD ARRANGEMENT.* 

28. The Senate of Rome ordered that no part of it 
should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the ground, so 
that travellers are unable to say where Carthage stood 
at this day. 

Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years 
after the second punic war, and two after it had begun. 

Upon the death of Claudius, the young Emperor 
Nero pronounced his funeral oration, and he was ca- 
nonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the 
name of a man. 

Galerius abated much of his severities against the 
Christians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts 
which he had formerly published, tending to their per- 
secution, a little before his death. 

The first care of Aurelius was to marry his daughter 
Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeianus a man of 
moderate fortune, &c. 

But at length having made his guards accomplices in 
their design, they set upon JMaximin while he slept at 
noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom 
he had made his partner in the empire, without any 
opposition, 

Aurelian defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and ter- 
rible nation of Germany, that had invaded Italy, in 
three several engagements. 

AMBIGUITY. 

29. You suppose him younger than I. 

This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than 1 
am, or that you suppose him to be younger than I suppose him 
to be. 

* The exercises in this section are all extracted from the octavo edition of 
Goldsmith's Roman History, from which many more might be obtained. 

13 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 86 

Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the 
father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he 
first opened the way into Asia. 

Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio y 
and means that he had not only served Philip, but he had served 
himself at the same time. This, however, is not the meaning of 
the passage. If we arrange it thus, the meaning will appear. 
u Parmenio had not only served Philip the father of Alexander 
with great fidelity, but he had served Alexander himself \ and 
was the first that opened the way for him into Asia.'' 

Belisarius was general of all the forces under the 
emperor Justinian the First, a man of rare valor. 

Who was a man of rare valor? The emperor Justinian we 
should suppose, from the arrangement of the words-, but this is 
not the case, for it was Belisarius. The sentence should stand 
thus, u Belisarius, a man of rare valor, was general of all the 
forces under the emperor Justinian the First. 11 

Lisias promised to his father never to abandon his 
friends. 

Whether were they his own friends or his father's whom Lisias 
promised never to abandon? If his own, it should be, Lisias pro- 
mised and said to his father, I will never abandon my friends. If 
his father's, it should be, Lisias promised and said to his father, 
I will never abandon your friends. 

§ 86. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 

463. 1. Many writers use a plural noun after the se- 
cond of two numeral adjectives \ thus, " The first and 
second pages are torn." According to analogy it should 
be, The first and the second page [449, 3]. Thus we 
say, " The new and the old world," "Ancient and mo- 
dern history," &c. 

2. Another, — One, — Every. 

Another corresponds to one ; but not to some, nor to 
tvery. Thus, "Handed down from every writer of 
rerses to another," should be, "From one writer of 
verses to another." "At some hour or another," should 
be, "At some hour or other." 

One is oiten used in familiar phrases, (like on in 
French,) tor we, or any one of us, indiscriminately 
thus, " One is often more influenced by example than 



§ 86 SYNTAX- 147 

by precept." The verb and pronoun with which one 
agrees, should be singular ; thus, " If one take a wrong 
method at first, it will lead them astray," should be, 
"it will lead one astray," or u kim astray." 

3 As follows, — As regards, — As appears, fyc. 

Dr. Campbell and Mr. Murray regard these, and se- 
veral other expressions of a similar kind, as impersonal 
verbs, and are of opinion that they should always be 
used in the singular. This, however, is contrary to the 
established usage of our best writers, who frequently 
use them in the plural form ; as, " The circumstances 
were as follow." Other Grammarians, and particularly 
Dr. Crombie (Etymology, p. 389 et seq.), consider as to 
be a relative pronoun, and that the verb following it 
should be singular or plural, according as its antecedent 
is in the singular or plural number ; thus, " His descrip- 
tion was as follows," i. e. "was this which follows." 
"His words were as follow," i. e. "were those which 
follow." Neither of these explanations seems to be en- 
tirely satisfactory. It is perhaps better to regard such 
phrases as elliptical, and in parsing to supply the ellip- 
sis thus, " The words were such as those which follow," 
or, "were the same as those which follow." 

As concerns, as regards, used commonly in the singu- 
lar, are also elliptical, and may be supplied thus, "As it 
concerns," or " As far as it concerns, regards," &c. As 
(it) appears, is always in the singular. In the plural, 
the noun or pronoun is commonly expressed thus, 
" These things, as they concern," or, " as far as they 
concern us ;" or, "As far as these things concern us," 
&c. In this way, there is no necessity for considering 
these expressions as impersonal verbs, nor for depriving 
as of its conjunctive character. App. XII. 

4. So and Such. 
When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, 
the word sue h is properly applied; as, "Such a temper 
is seldom found." But when degree is signified, we 
use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 
Yet so is hardly ever used before an adjective followed 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 86 

by a plural noun. In this case, such is used instead of 
it, to express degree. Thus, we say, " Such beautiful 
flowers I have seldom seen ;" not, " so beautiful flowers.'' 
Still it would be correct to say, " I have never seen 
flowers so beautiful/' 

5. Disappointed of, — Disappointed in. 

We are disappointed of a thing, when we expect it 
and do not get it ; and disappointed in it, when we have 
it, and it does not answer our expectations. Hence a 
person may be disappointed in that which he is not 
disappointed of. 

6. Taste of, and Taste for. 

A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it ; 
but a taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment ; 
as, " When we have had a true taste of the pleasures 
of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice." 
" He had a taste for such studies, and pursued them 
earnestly." 

7. Position of Adjectives. 

Adjectives should be placed next their substantives. 
Thus, it is incorrect to say, " a new pair of shoes," " a 
Ane field of corn," " a good glass of wine," &c; because 
the adjectives in these sentences qualify shoes-, corn, 
wine, and not pair, field, glass, with which they are 
joined. The phrases should be, "A pair of new shoes ;" 
"A field of fine corn;" "A glass of good wine." 

8. Bvtthat. 

But is often improperly used before that, after words 
which imply doubt or fear ; as, " I doubt not but that 
he will fulfil his promise." This would seem to say, 
" I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he will 
fulfil his promise ;" whereas, that is the very thing not 
doubted. Remove the but, and you preserve the sense. 

9. Older, Oldest, — Elder, Eldest. 

Older and oldest refer to maturity of age; elder and 
eldest, to priority of right by birth. Thus, " Homer is 



§ 86. SYNTAX- 149 

an older author than Virgil." "Being the eldest of the 
family, he succeeded to the estate." 

10. Farther and Farthest, — Further and Furthest. 

Farther and farthest denote place or distance ; Fur- 
ther and furthest, quantity or addition ; as, " The farther 
they advanced, the more interesting was the scene." 
" I have nothing further to say on this subject." Far- 
ther is the comparative, and farthest, the superlative 
of far ; Further and furthest, of fore or forth. 

11. Later, latest, — Latter, last, — Next, Nearest. 

Later and latest, compared from late, have respect 
to time ; latter and last, to place or position, and are 
employed without so direct a reference to comparison. 
Next refers either to time or place ; nearest, to place 
only. 

12. Past, passed. 

Fast is an adjective ; passed, the past tense or past 
participle of the verb, and they ought not, as they fre- 
quently are, to be confounded with each other. 

13. Lay, lie, — Set, sit 
Lay and lie are distinct in meaning and application, 
and can not be used indiscriminately. The use of the 
former for the latter is an error exceedingly prevalent, 
and should be corrected. Thus we constantly hear such 
expressions as, " It lays on the table ;" " It laid there 
yesterday." Lie is an intransitive verb; Lay is tran- 
sitive, and means to make lie. The past tense of lie 
is lay, and past participle lain. The past tense of lay 
is laid, and past participle laid, Thus, The bricklayer 
lays bricks, and being laid, they lie. The book lies 
on the shelf; it was laid there a week ago, and has 
lain ever since. The same distinction should be ob- 
served between set and sit. 

14. "Be that as it will," is a common, but inaccurate 
expression. It ought to be, " Be that as it may," or 
may have been. 

15. " Seldom or ever" is not correct. It should be 
seldom or never; or, seldom if ever. 

13* 



15t) 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§87 



464. § 87. A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS 

SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERING'S VOCABULARY. 



I should admire to go to sea. 

f allot upon going. 

The alone God. The alone motive. 

I an't ; you anH ; he anH, &c. 

Any manner of means. 

His discourse was approbated. 

To sell at auction. 

He was walking back and forth. 

Part were good, the balance were bad. 

EIis argument was based on this fact. 

Where be you? Here I be. 

The money was ordered paid. 

I would not belittle or demean myself. 

He was paid for his betterments. 

I calculate to leave town soon. 

A chunk of bread. 

A clever* house. 

He conducts well. 

He is considerable of a scholar. 

His farm was convenient to mine. 

The creatures^ must be sent to pasture. 

Curious apples ; curious cider, &c. 

He is a decent scholar, writer. 

Her situation was distressing to a degree. 

Such conduct was very derogatory. 

A total destitution of capacity. 

The United States, or either of them. 

Equally as well — as good, &c. 

Mr. B , Esq. 

I think it will eventuate in this. 
I expectX they be. 

I expect he must have died long ago 
These things are in a bad fix. 
Will you^x these things for me? 
Firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
How do your folks do? 
What do folks think of it? 
Will you go by and dine with me? 
Talents of the highest grade. 
Do you love play ? I guesst I do. 
You will tell another guess (guise) sto- 
ry soon. 
We may hope the assistance of God. 
A horse colt ; A mare colt. 
It would illy accord. 
When did you come in town. 

In good case ; or kelter. 

Where do you keep J— put up ? — 

A lengthy sermon, See. 



I would like to go to sea. 

I intend to go. 

The one God. The only motive. 

I am not ; you are not ; he is not, &c. 

Any means. 

His discourse was approved. 

To sell by auction. 

backwards and forwards. 

the remainder, or the rest were 

bad. 
His argument was founded on this fact. 
Where are you ? Here I am. 
The money was ordered to be paid. 
I would not degrade myself. 
He was paid for his improvements 
I intend to leave town soon. 
A piece of bread. 
A good house. 

He conducts himself well, respectably. 
He is a pretty good scholar. 
His farm was contiguous to mine, close 
The cattle must be sent to pasture. 
Excellent apples, excellent cider, &c. 
He is a pretty good scholar, writer. 

was extremely distressing 

• was very degrading. 

A total want of capacity. 
The United States, or any of them 
Equally well, or just as well, &c. 
A B , Esq. 



• will end, or terminate, in this. 



I believe they are. 

I think he must have died, &c. 

in a bad state or condition. 

Will you put these things in order for me ? 

First, secondly, &c. 

How is your family ? 

What do people think of it? 

Will you go by my house and dine ? 

Talents of the highest order. 

there is no doubt of that 

another kind of story. 

We may hope for the assistance of God. 

A colt : A filly. 

It would ill accord. 

When did you come into town ? ($77, 

Obs. 2.) 
In good condition, good order. 
At whose house do you stay ? 
A long sermon, &e. 



*The word clever, applied to persons, in the English sense, means active, 
quiche ingenious ; in the American sense, of a kind, obliging disposition. 

tThis word, in the northern states, is a general term for horses, cattle, sheep, 
6 wine, &c. 

XF-rpect is properly applied to things to come ; guess, to things uncertain, never 
present, or about which there is no doubt 



)88. 



SYNTAX. 



151 



Why don't you strike like I do ? 

He is a very likely man. 

Will you loan me a few dollars ? 

T was mad at him. 

Mighty cold j mighty fine. 

Obnoxious* doctrines. 

He will once in a while get drunk. 

He went up on to the roof 

What had that ought to be? 

Over the signature of Junius. t 

He still plead not guilty. 

They are not very* plenty. 

He is rather poorly. 

Predicated on former proceedings. 

The work progresses slowly. 

"Not proven. 

I was raised in Virginia. 

A committee was raised. 

The price will raise soon. 

I reckon he will. 

The council resulted, that, &c. 

Such doctrines revolt us. 

A. rugged child. 

I sat out on my journey. 

The market is'full of sauce. 

You have too much sauce. 

I see him, I seen him yesterday. 

Serious people. 

He is some better than he was. 

I have had a spell of sickness. 

Be spry. He is a springy man. 

He shews much temper. % 

He is an ugly fellow. 



as I do, or, like as I do. 

He is a very good looking man. 

lend me a few dollars 

I was angry with him. 
Very cold ; very fine. 
Hurtful or offensive doctrines. 

sometimes get drunk. 

He went up to the roof. 

What should that be ? 

Under the signature of Junius. 

pleaded not guilty. 

They are not very plentiful. 

rather indisposed. 

Founded on former proceedings. 
The work advances slowly. 
Not proved. 
I was brought up in Virginia. 

was formed or appointed. 

will rise soon. 

I suppose he will. 

came to the conclusion, that, &3. 

We revolt at such doctrines. 
A robust or healthy child. 
I set out. &c. 

full of vegetables. 

too much impertinence. 

I saw him yesterday. 
Religious people. 

somewhat better. 

I have been sick for some time. 
Be quick —an active man. 

much warmth of temper. 

a fellow of bad disposition. 



§88. PUNCTUATION. 
465. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by 
points or stops, in order to convey to the reader the 
exact sense, and assist him in the proper delivery. 



*Obnoxious signifies liable to, and should not be used for hurtful or offensive. 

|On this expression, Pickering remarks : " A few of our writers still counte- 
nance this unwarrantable innovation ; but the principle on which it is defended 
would unsettle the whole language.' 5 We might with equal propriety say, "Given 
over my hand and seal." ' ; It is so well known to be the constant practice of 
the best English and American writers to say, c under a name,' and 'under a sig- 
nature,' that it will hardly be credited that any who speak the English language 
could have questioned the propriety of it." The term under, in such phrases, >s 
figurative, and means, under the sanction, authority, or responsibility of. It has 
nothing to do with the mere relative position of the writing, and the name or sig- 
nature attached to it ; a circumstance in itself of no consequence whatever, but 
which, nevertheless, is all that the term over is capable of expressing. 

%Temper, in the American sense, means warmth of temper, passion. In Eng- 
land it means " moderation, coolness." In this sense the words temperate and 
sitemperate are always understood. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- § 88 

466. The principal stops are the following: 

The Comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : ) 
the period, or full stop ( . ) the note of interrogation 
( ? ) the note of exclamation ( ! ) 

467. The comma represents the shortest pause ; the 
semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, 
double that of the semicolon; and the period, double 
that of the colon. 

468. The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the 
reader or speaker. 

RULES FOR THE PROPER PUNCTUATION OP A COMPOSITION. 

THE COMMA. 

469. The comma usually separates those parts of a 
sentence which, though very closely connected in sense 
and construction, require a pause between them. 

470. Rule 1. A simple sentence, when it is a short one, admits 
only a period at the end-, as, " No state of life is exempt from 
trouble." 

471. When a simple sentence is a long one, and the nominative 
case is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma must be in- 
serted before the verb-, as, U A steady and undivided attention to 
one object, is a sure mark of superior genius. The necessity of an 
early acquaintance with history, has always been acknowledged." 

472. Note. By the term adjunct, is meant any number of words 
added by way of modifying or qualifying the principal words •, thus, 
" Cicero, the eloquent Cicero, suffered an ignominious death :" the 
phrase, the eloquent Cicero, is the adjunct of Cicero (484). 

473. Rule 2. The simple members of a compound sentence are 
separated by commas-, as, u When the graces of novelty are worn 
off, admiration is succeeded by indifference." " Crafty men con- 
temn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." 

474. But when the members are closely connected, the comma 
is unnecessary -, as, t; Revelation tells us how we may obtain hap- 
piness." 

475. Rule 3. Two words of the same part of speech, whether 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not admit a 
comma between them when connected by a conjunction -, as, " The 



§ 88. SYNTAX. 153 

earth and the moon are planets." " Time brings a gentle and 
powerful opiate to all misfortunes." " The man of order catches 
and arrests the hours as they fly." " By encouraging and ani 
mating him, he became active." " Success generally depends on 
acting prudently and vigorously ." ic We must live either virtu 
ously or viciously." 

476. But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is in- 
serted between the words-, as, " Reason, passion, answer one great 
end." u He is & plain, honest man." 

477. Rule 4. Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, parti- 
ciples, or adverbs, with or without a conjunction, are separated by 
commas-, as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." "David 
was a brave, wise, and prudent prince." " The sight, the hear- 
ing, the feeling, the taste, the smell, are the five natural senses." 

478. "When words are connected in pairs, there is a comma after 
each pair ; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, deso 
lation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war.'' 

479. Rule 5. The words used in a direct address, the case ab 
solute, a short expression in the manner of a quotation, and tha 
infinitive mood absolute when it is not used as a nominative case, 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas-, as t 
■' My son, hear the counsels of thy father." " I remain, Sir, youi 
obedient servant." " The time of youth being precious, we should 
devote it to the purposes of improvement." " Plutarch calls lying, 
the vice of slaves.'''' " To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed 
future ease and reputation." 

480. Rule 6. A single name in apposition is not separated by a 
comma-, as, " The apostle Peter-," "The emperor Antoninus. w 
But when such name is accompanied with an adjunct, the adjunct 
should have a comma before and after it -, as "Augustus, the Roman 
tmperor, was a patron of the fine arts." " Paul, the apostle of the. 
Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge." 

481. Rule 7. Simple members of sentences connected by com- 
naratives, and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, 
each other, are separated by commas; thus, " As the hart panteth 
after the water brooks, so doth my soul after thee." " They are 
sometimes in union with, an4 sometimes in, opposition to, the 
view? of each other." 

'* Th'uprh 4e*p y.t clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage-, without o'erflowing, full." 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 88 

482. When one word follows the last preposition as its object 
a comma must not be inserted before it-, as, " He was much at 
tached to, and concerned for John." 

483. When the members of comparative sentences are short, the 
comma is omitted*, as, u How much better is wisdom than gold.* 

484. Rule S. All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at 
the beginning, middle, or end of a simple sentence, are separated 
from it by commas*, as, " With gratitude, I remember his good- 
ness to me." " I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to 
me." u His talents, formed for great enter prizes, could not fail 
of rendering him conspicuous." u Vices, like shadows, towards 
the evening of life, grow great and monstrous." " I saw the 
captain, as he is called." 

485. A comma must also be inserted between the two parts of 
a sentence, which have their natural order inverted ; as, u To God, 
nothing is impossible*, that is, " Nothing is impossible to God." 

486. Rule 9. A comma must be inserted before the relative, 
when the clause immediately after it is used as explanatory of 
the antecedent clause*, as, " He, who disregards the good opinion 
of the world, must be utterly abandoned*," or, " He must be ut- 
terly abandoned, who disregards the good opinion of the world." 

487. But when the relative is so closely connected with its an • 
tecedent, that it can not be transposed, a comma must not be in- 
serted before it*, as, u Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue mu3t 
make." " I have carefully perused the book which you lent me." 

488. Rule 10. When any tense of the verb to be is followed by 
a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be 
made the nominative case to it, the former is generally separated 
from the latter verb by a comma*, as, "The best preservative of 
health is, to be temperate in all our gratifications." u To be 
temperate in all our gratifications, is the best preservative of 
health." 

489. Rule 11. When a verb is understood, a comma must be 
inserted*, as, u Reading makes a full man*, conference, a ready 
man*, and writing, an exact man." 

490. Rule 12. The word that, used as a conjunction, is preceded 
by a comma; as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy." 

491. Adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions, used to connect or 
introduce a new member, must be separated from the preceding 
part of the sentence by a comma; as, " The instructions of ad- 



§ 88. SYNTAX. 155 

versity may be wholesome, though unpleasing. 17 " The wise 
man seeketh wisdom, but the fool despiseth understanding," 

492. Rule 13. The words way, so, hence, again, first, secondly^ 
formerly, now, lastly, in fact, therefore, wherefore, however, be- 
sides, indeed, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, 
must, when considered of importance, be separated from the con- 
text by a comma, according to rule 8th 5 as, " Besides, our repu- 
tation does not depend on the caprice of man, but on our own 
good actions." " Lastly, strive to preserve a conscience void of 
offence towards God and man." " If the spring put forth no 
blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no 
fruit •, so, if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper 
years may be contemptible, and old age miserable." 

493. When, however, these phrases are not considered im- 
portant, and particularly in short sentences, the comma is not 
inserted-, as, u There is surely a pleasure in acting kindly." 
" Idleness certainly is the mother of all vices." " He was at 
last convinced of his error." 

494.***The foregoing rales will, it is hoped, be found comprehensive; yet 
there may be some cases in which the student must rely on his own judgment. 

In composing works for the press, many authors merely insert a period at the 
end of each sentence, and leave the rest to be pointed by the printers, who, from 
their constant practice, are supposed to have acquired a uniform mode of punc- 
tuation. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

495. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of 
a sentence, which are less closely connected than those 
which are separated by a comma. 

496. Rule 1. When the first division of a sentence contains a 
complete proposition, but is followed by a clause which is added 
as an inference, or to give some explanation, the two parts must 
be separated by a semicolon-, as, " Perform your duty faithfully: 
for this will procure you the blessing of heaven." u The orator 
makes the truth plain to his hearers-, he awakens them; he ex- 
cites them to action -, he shews them their impending danger." 
u Be in peace with many-, nevertheless, have but one counsellor 
of a thousand." 

497. Rule 2. When several short sentences follow each other, 
having merely a slight connection in idea, though in other respects 
complete in themselves, they may be separated by a semicolon; 
as, u Every thing grows old-, every thing passes away-, every 



*i 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §88. 

thing disappears." u The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; 
tragedy represents a disastrous event-, comedy ridicules the vices 
and follies of mankind-, pastoral poetry describes rural life; and 
elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 

THE COLON. 

498. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two 
or more parts, less connected than those which are se- 
parated by a semicolon, but not so independent as to 
require a period. 

499. Rule 1. A colon is used when a member of a sentence 
is complete in itself, both in sense and construction, but is fol- 
lowed by some additional remark or illustration, depending upon 
it in sense, though not in syntax; as, "A brute arrives at a point 
of perfection that he can never pass: in a few years he has all the 
endowments he is capable of, and w T ere he to live ten thousand 
more, would be the same thing he is at present." u Study to ac- 
quire a habit of thinking: no study is more important.'" 

500. Rule 2. When a sentence contains several perfect mem- 
bers separated by semicolons, the concluding member requires a 
colon before it ; as, "A Divine Legislator, uttering his voice from 
heaven , an Almighty Governor stretching forth his arm to pu- 
nish or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter 
for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the 
wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world> 
which support integrity and check guilt." 

501. Rule 3. Either the colon or semicolon may be used when 
an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, "Always 
remember this ancient maxim; "Know thyself." "The scrip- 
tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these 
words: c God is love?'" 

502. Rule 4, The insertion or omission of a conjunction be- 
fore the concluding member of a sentence, frequently determines 
the use of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not 
expressed before the concluding member, the colon is to be used; 
but when it is expressed, the semicolon is used; as, "Apply your- 
self to learning : it will redound to your honor." u Apply your- 
self to learning; for it will redound to your honor." 



5 88. SYNTAX. 157 

THE PERIOD. 

503. When a sentence is complete, with respect to 
the construction and the sense intended, a period must 
be used; as, "God made all things.'" "By disappoint- 
ments and trials, the violence of our passions is tamed." 
" In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both 
of the active and the passive virtues." 

504. A period is sometimes inserted between sentences which 
are connected by conjunctions; as, " Our position is, that happi- 
ness does not consist in greatness. And this position we make 
out by shewing, that even what are supposed to be the peculiar 
advantages of greatness, the pleasures of ambition and superior- 
ity, are in reality common to all conditions. But whether the 
pursuits of ambition are ever wise, whether they contribute more 
to the happiness or misery of the pursuers, is a different question*, 

'and a question concerning which we may be allowed to entertain 
great doubt. 1 ' 

505. The period must be used after all abbrevia- 
tions ; as, " A. D." " M. A." " Fol." 

506. OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 

Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked. 

Admiration (!) or Exclamation, is used to express any sudden emotion of the 
mind. 

Parenthesis ( ) is used to enclose some necessary remark in the body of another 
sentence ; commas are now commonly used instead of parentheses 

Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out ; as lov'd for loved. 

Caret (a) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined. 

Hyphen (-) is used at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at the 
beginning of the next line. It also connects compound words ; as, Tea- 
pot ; Father-in-law. 

Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions 

Paragraph (^) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject. 

Crotchets ([ ]) or Brackets, are properly used to enclose a word or phrase interpo 
lated for the purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying a deficiency 
in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and which did not belong to 
the original composition; thus, It is said, " The wisest men [and" it 
might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty.' ' 
^urAation (" ,f ) is used to show that a passage is quoted in the author's words, 

or to mark a passage regarded as a quotation. 
Index (O*) is used to point out any thing remarkable. 

| is used to connect words which have one common term, or three lines la 
I poetry, having the same rhyme, called tho tiylcU 

14 

/ 



mm 



158 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§88 



Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; a3, K— g for King, 

Acute accent (/) is used to denote a short syllable ; the grave ( % ) a long. 
Breve (*-") marks a short vowel or syllable, and the Macron, (-) a long-. 
Di&resis ( " ) is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables ; as, aerial. 
Asterisk (*)— Obelisk (t)— Double Dagger ($)— and Parallels (||) with small let 
ters slix\ figures, refer to some note on the margin, or at the bottom of the 
page. 
***) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some letters in some bold or 

indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript* 
Dash ( — ) is used to denote abruptness— a significant pause — an unexpected 
turn in the sentiment— or that the first clause is common to all the rest, 
as in this definition of a dash. 
$07. ABBREVIATIONS. 

Latin. English. 

Ante Christum* A. C. Before Christ 

Artium Baccalaureus A. B. Bachelor of Arts (often B. A.) 

In the year of our Lord 



Anno Domini 
Artium Magister 
Anno Mnndi 
Ante Meridiem 
Anno Urbis Coiiditse 
Baccalaureus Divimtatis 
Custos Privati Sigilli 
Custos Sigilli 
Doctor Divinitatis 
Exempli gratia 
Regise Societatis Socius 



A. C. 
A. B. 
A. D. 
A. M. 
A. M. 
A. M. 

A. U. C. 

B. D. 

C. P. S. 

c. s. 

D. D. 

e.g. 
R. S. ~ 



Master of Arts 

In the year of the world « 

In the forenoon 

In the year after the building of the city 

Bachelor of Divinity [ — Rome 

Keeper of the Privy Seal 

Keeper of the Seal 

Doctor of Divinity 

For example 

Fellow of the Royal Society 



Regise Societatis Antiquano-R. S. A. S. Fellow of the Royal SocieC if Antt- 



rum Socius 

Georgius Rex G. R. 

Id est i. e. 

Jesus Hominum Salvator J. H. S. 

Legum Doctor L. L. D. 

Locus Sigilli L. S. 

Messieurs [French] Messrs 

Medicinae Doctor M. D. 

Memoriae Sacrum M. S. 

Nota Bene N. B. 

Post Meridiem P. M. 

Post Scriptum P. S. 

Ultimo Ult. 

Et Csetera &c. &c. 

A. Answer, Alexander L. C. J. 

Acct. Account Knt. 

Bart. Baronet K. G. 

Bp. Bishop K. B. 

Capt. Captain K. C. B. 

Col. Colonel K. C. 

Cr. Creditor K. P. 

Dr.# Debtor, Doctor K. T. 

Do. or Ditto. The same MS. a 

Viz.t Namely MSS. 

Q. Question, Queen N. S. 

R. N. Royal Navy O. S. 

Esq. Esquire J. P. 



quarics 
George the King 
That is 

Jesus the Saviour of men 
Doctor of Laws 
Place of the Seal 
Gentlemen 
Doctor of Medicine 
Sacred to the Memory (or $. M.) 
Note well : Take notice 
In the afternoon 

Postscript,something written aftet 
Last, (month) 
And the rest ; and so fonh 

Lord Chief Justice 

Knight 

Knight of the Garter 

Knight of the Bath 

Knt. Commander of the Bath 

Knt. of the Crescent 

Knight of St. Patrick 

Knight of the Thistle 

Manuscript 

Manuscripts 

New Style 

Old Style 

Justice of the Peace 



*The Latin of these Abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart, but t' 
show the etymology of the English ; or explain, for instance how P. M. cranes U» 
mean afternoon, &c. 

tContrnetetl from videlicet 



§ 89 SYNTAX. 15'J 

508. PARAGRAPHS. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numer- 
ous, should be separated into paragraphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the 
Jarger divisions of it should be put into distinct paragraphs. 

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes 
naturally point out the separations into paragraphs: and each of 
these, when of great length, will again require subdivisions at 
the most distinctive parts. 

In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into 
several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the 
connection of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the 
division. 

509. § 89. CAPITALS, 

Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, 
both in writing and in printing; but at present only the 
following words begin with capital letters : — 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, 
note, or other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period; also after a note 
of interrogation, or exclamation, when the sentence be- 
fore, and the one after it, are independent of each other. 

But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences are so connected, thai 
die latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin 
with a small letter; as, " How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people 
how are her habitations become as desolate ! how is she become as a widow ! 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, 
ships, &c. 

4. The pronoun J, and the interjection 0, are writ- 
ten in capitals. 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most 
High, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of pla- 
ces ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §90,91. 

colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim : "Know 
thyself." 

When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form, but follows a comma, the 
first word must not begin with a capital ; as, Solomon observes, that i pride 
goes before destruction. y 

9. Common nouns when personified; as, " Come, gen- 
tle Spring." 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the ti- 
tles of books; as, "Euclid's Elements of Geometry;" 
" Goldsmith's Deserted Village." 

Note. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when 
they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 

§ 90. RHETORICAL DIVISIONS OF A DISCOURSE. 

510. The principal parts of a discourse are generally six in 
number, viz. the Exordium, the Narration, the Proposition, the 
Confirmation, the Refutation, and the Peroration. 

511. The Exordium, or beginning of a discourse, is the part in 
which the writer or speaker gives some intimation of his subject, 
and solicits the favor and attention of his audience or readers. 

512. The Narration is a brief recital of all the facts connected 
with the case, from beginning to end. 

513. The Proposition is the part in which is given the true 
state of the question, specifying the points maintained, and those 
in which the writer or speaker differs from his adversary. 

514. The Confirmation assembles all the proofs and arguments 
that can be adduced in support of what has been attempted to be 
established. The stronger begin and end this part, and the weaker 
are reserved for the middle. 

515. The Refutation is the part in which the writer or speaker 
answers the arguments and objections of his opponent. 

516. In the Peroration or Conclusion, he sums up the principal 
arguments, and endeavors to excite the passions of his reader or 
hearer in his favor. 

§ 91. DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 

517. All Composition, whether spoken or written, is of two 
kinds, either Prose or Poetry. 

518. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts and 
sentiments are expressed in common and ordinary language. 



§ 91. SYNTAX. 161 

519. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and 
sentiments are expressed by such a selection and arrangement oi 
words as pleases the ear and captivates the fancy. 

520. Thousands write and speak prose, for one who does so in 
verse; yet it is generally allowed that poetic compositions, in all 
countries, have preceded those of prose. 

521. Compositions, whether in prose or poetry, are divided into 
different classes, and arranged under various heads. 

I. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROSE COMPOSITION. 

522. The different kinds into which prose compositions may be 
divided, are, Narrative, Letters, Memoirs, History, Biography, 
Essays, Philosophy, Sermons, Novels, and Speeches or Orations. 

523. Narrative is a plain and simple statement of such facts 
and occurences as a person may have either seen or heard, and in- 
cludes in it Voyages and Travels of all descriptions. 

524. Letters are those easy and familiar compositions which 
pass from one person to another, and may be appropriated to every 
description of subject, though generally relating to the common 
and ordinary occurrences of life and business. 

525. Memoirs consist of loose and familiar records of indivi" 
duals or nations, without that regularity of method which history 
and biography require. 

526. History is a regular account of the past transactions of 
some particular age or nation, and details chiefly plans of govern- 
ment, movements of armies, and events of great general interest. 

527. Biography is a particular species of history, and consists 
oi an account of the birth, death, and most important occurrences 
in the life of some eminent individual. 

528. Essay means trial or attempt, and is a modest term as- 
sumed at the pleasure of the writer, as the title of almost any 
species of composition, though it is generally employed to denote 
such writings as the Spectator, Rambler, etc. 

529. Philosophy, or Philosophical Compositions are those in 
which the principles of art and science are inculcated, and the va- 
rious phenomena of the natural and moral world investigated. 

530. Sermons are illustrations of some doctrine of Scripture, 
or exhortations to the practice of some moral and religious duty, 
enjoined by Christianity. 

531. Novels are those compositions which give an account of 
abaracters and events that have in reality never existed, but have- 

14* 



L? 



163 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 91. 

Deen invented or supposed by the author, for the purpose eitner 
of affording pleasure, or inculcating some important lesson. 

532. Speeches and Orations are those addresses which are 
made either at the Bar or in Public Assemblies, for the purpose 
of persuading the hearers of the truth of certain opinions, or lead 
ing to the adoption of certain modes of action. 

II. DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY. 

533. The different kinds into which poetry may be divided, are 
the Epigram, the Epitaph, the Sonnet-, Pastoral, Didactic, Satiric, 
Descriptive, Elegiac, Lyric, Dramatic, and Epic, or Heroic poetry. 

534. An Epigram is a short, witty poem, the point or humour 
of which is brought out in the concluding lines. 

535. An Epitaph is an inscription on a tombstone, in comme- 
moration of some departed person. 

536. The Sonnet, which is of Italian origin, means a little 
song, and consists generally of fourteen lines, constructed in a 
peculiar manner. 

537. Pastoral poetry is that which relates to rural life -, though 
it sometimes assumes the form of a simple song or ballad. 

538. Didactic poetry is that by which some art or duty is in- 
culcated-, and, though forming a distinct class of itself, yet its 
characteristics are so general as to extend to almost every descrip- 
tion of poetry. 

539. Satires are poems intended to ridicule vices and follies, 
and hold them up to contempt. They have been divided into two 
classes -, the jocose or ludicrous, and the serious or declamatory. 

540. Descriptive poetry maybe classed under two divisions*, 
that, by which is offered to our view a delineation of nature, or 
of natural scenery, and that, by which are described the manners, 
sentiments, and passions of men. 

541. Elegy was first employed in lamentation for the decease 
of great persons, or of those who were particularly dear to the 
writer- but it was afterwards extended in its application, and 
employed to express the misery of disappointed love, and even at 
times made the vehicle of moral sentiment. 

542. Lyric poetry is such as may be sung or set to music, 
which both the term ode, and the epithet lyric, from lyre, a mu- 
sical instrument, imply. There is the serious and sublime ode, 
and the familiar and comic which, in modern language, is de* 
nominated the song. 



§ 92. SYNTAX. 163 

543. By Dramatic poetry is generally meant a poem in blank 
verse or rhyme, called a play, and fitted for representation on the 
stage. It is of two kinds, Tragic and Comic. 

544. An Epic poem, is a historical representation or descrip- 
tion of some great and important action, involving the interests 
of the whole, or of a large portion, of mankind. 

§92. FIGUEJES. 

545. A Figure in grammar, is some deviation 
from the ordinary form, or construction, or appli- 
cation of words, in a sentence, for the purpose of 
greater precision, variety, or elegance of expression. 

546. There are three kinds of Figures; viz. of Ety- 
mology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. The first and 
the second refer to the form of words, or to their con- 
struction, the last to their application. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

547. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the 
tosual or simple form of words, merely. 

548. Of these the most important are eight, viz. . 
A-phcer-e-sis, Pros-thesis, Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a- 
go-ge, Di-cer-e~sis, Syn-cer-e-sis, and Tme-sis. 

1. Jlphceresis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of 
a word-, as, Against , ''gan, ^bove, ''neath, for against^ began % 
above, beneath. 

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word •, as, adown, 
agoing, etc., for down, going, etc. 

3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short 
one, from the middle of a word; as, medicine, spirit, e'en, for 
medicine, spirit, even. 

4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of 
a word-, as, tho 1 for though, ffl lor the. 

5. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word^ 
as, deary, for dear. 

6. DicBresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into dif- 
ferent syllables, usually marked thus ( •• ) on the second vowel-, 
as, cooperate } aerial. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 92. 

7. Synaresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either 
orthography or pronunciation ; as, dost, seest, for doest, seest; or, 
loved, learned, pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed % 
Uarn-ed. 

8. Tmesis is separating the parts of a compound word by an 
intervening term-, as, u What time soever ;" " On which side 
soever;" u To us ward." 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

549. A Figure of Syntax is a deviation from the 
usual construction of words in a sentence, used for the 
sake of greater beauty or force. 

550. Of these, the most important are Ellipsis, Pleo- 
nasm, Syllepsis, Enallage, and Hyper oat on. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to the full con 
8truction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea 
intended. Such words are said to be understood-, as; u The 
men, women, and children," for " The men, the women, and the 
children." 

2. Pleonasm is the using of more words than are necessary to 
the full construction of a sentence, to give greater force or em 
phasis to the expression -, as, " The boy, oh! where was he ? " 

3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which 
we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words import, 
and construe them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of th6 
sun, we say, " He shines;" of a ship, " She sails" (§ 7. Ohs. 2). 

4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or of 
one modification of a word for another; as an adjective for an ad 
verb, thus-. "They fall successive, and successive rise," for sue- 
cessively ; the use of we and you in the plural, to denote an indi- 
ridual, etc^ ($ 15. Obs. 3-4). 

5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a 
sentence, to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition; 
as, u Now come we to the last." " A man he was to all the 
country dear." u He wanders earth around.'''' 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

551. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the 
ordinary application of words in speech, to give anima- 



§ 92. SYNTAX. 165 

tion, strength, and beauty, to the composition. These 
figures are sometimes called tropes. 

552. Of these, the most important are the following, 
viz : 

Personification, Hyperbole, Climax, 

Simile, Irony, Exclamation, 

Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation, 

Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis, 

Vision, Antithesis, Apostrophe. 

1. Personification, or prosopopceia, is that figure of speech by 
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects-, as, " The 
sea saw it, and fled." 

2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to 
another-, as, "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." 

3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign [like, or as, etc.] 
of comparison •, as, u He shall be a tree planted by," etc. 

4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so con 
nected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the 
people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : "Thou 
hast brought a vine out of Egypt," etc. Ps. lxxx. 8-16. Of this 
style are iEsop's Fables, Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress," etc. 

5. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker repre- 
sents past events, or the objects of his imagination, as actually 
present to his senses-, as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubi- 
con, and enters Italy-," " The combat thickens : on, ye brave!" 

6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or 
less, better or worse, than they really are. Thus, David says of 
Saul and Jonathan, u They were swifter than eagles, they were 
stronger than lions." 

7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of 
what we say; as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, 
" Cry aloud, for he is a god," etc. 

8. A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the 
effect or the effect for the cause-, as, when we say, " He reads 
Milton;" we mean Milton's works. " Gray hairs should be re- 
spected-," that is, old age. 

9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the 
whole for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, etc. 5 as, the 



166 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 92 

waves for the sea, the head for the person, and fen thousand for 
any great number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy 

10. Antithesis , or contrast, is a figure by which different or 
contrary objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to 
advantage. Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked 
with the courage of the righteous, when he says, " The wicked 
flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion. 1 '* 

11. Climax, or amplification, is the heightening of all the cir- 
cumstances of an object or action which we wish to place in a 
strong light-, as, "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? 
Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or na- 
kedness, or peril, or sword ? Nay," etc. See also Rom. viii. 38, 39. 

12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong 
emotion of the mind-, as, u Oh! the depth of the riches both of 
the wisdom and the knowledge of God!" 

13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion 
of our mind, and enliven our discourse, by proposing questions , 
thus, u Hath the Lord said it 1 and shall he not do it? Hath he 
spoken it ? and shall he not make it good ? " 

14. Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker 
pretends to conceal what he is really declaring and strongly 
enforcing-, as, u Horatius was once a very promising young gen- 
tleman, but in process of time he became so addicted to gaming, 
not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery^ that he soon ex- 
hausted his estate, and ruined his constitution. 

15. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject, to address some 
other person or thing-, as, u Death is swallowed up in victory ; 
O Death, where is thy sting ? " 

POETIC LICENSE. 

553. Besides the deviations from the usual form and construc- 
tion of words, noted under the figures of Etymology and, Syntax, 
there are still others, which can not be classed under proper 
heads, and which, from being used mostly in poetic composition, 
are commonly called poetic licenses. These are such as the fol- 
lowing — 

554. 1. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are 
often used, which would be inadmissible in prose ; as, 

tt A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year.* 



$ 92. SYNTAX. J 67 

44 By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen.'" 
44 Shall I receive by gift, what of my own, 

When and where likes me best, I can command?" 
M Thy voice we hear, and 1;hy behests obey." 
M The whiles, the vaulted shrine around. 

Seraphic wires were heard to sound." 
44 On the first friendly bank he throws him down." 
44 I'll seek the solitude he sought, 

And stretch me where he lay." 
4t Not Hector's self should want an equal foe." 

2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable 
in poetry than in prose ; as, 

44 Suffice, to-night, these orders to obey." 
44 Time is our tedious song should here have ending." 
44 For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise?" 
44 ' T is Fancy, in her fiery car, 

Transports me to the thickest war." 
44 Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys." 
44 Bliss is the same in subject as in king, 

In who obtain defence, or who defend." 

3. Adjectives in poetry are often elegantly construct- 
ed with nouns which they do not strictly qualify; as, 

84 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." 

41 The tenants of the warbling shade." 

tc And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds." 

4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the 
poets. A noun and its pronoun are often used in refer- 
ence to the same verb ; as, 

44 It ceased, the melancholy sound." 

41 My banks they are furnished with bees." 

5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb 
and t o, the sign of the infinitive ; as, 

u To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell 5 
To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes.* 1 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 92. 

6. A common poetic license consists in employing 
or and nor instead of either and neither; as, 

" And first 

Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea." 
" Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest." 

7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, and 
adjectives used like abstract nouns; as, 

" The lightnings flash a larger curve. 11 

" Still in harmonious intercourse they lived 

The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." 
u Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 

By chance, or search, was offered to his view, 

He scanned with curious eye." 

8. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are al- 
lowable in poetry, though inadmissible in prose ; as, 

u He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." 
" Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold." 
" There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call, 

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame." 
11 Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed.' 1 

" Never since created man 

Met f>wJo embodied force." 









PART FOURTH. 



PROSODY. 

555. Prosody treats of Elocution and Versifi- 
cation. 

§ 93. ELOCUTION. 

556. Elocution is correct pronunciation, or the 
proper management of the voice in reading or 
speaking. 

557. In order to read and speak with grace and ef- 
fect, attention must be paid to the proper pitch of the 
voice, the accent and quantity of the syllables, and to 
emphasis, pauses, and tones. 

558. — 1. In the pitch and management of the voice, it should 
be neither too high nor too low •, it should be distinct and clear 5 
the utterance neither too quick nor too slow, and neither too va- 
ried nor too monotonous. 

559. — 2. Accent is the laying of a particular stress of voice 
on a certain syllable in a word, as the syllable vir- in vtr'tue, 
vir'tuous. 

560. — 3. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time w^ich 
is required to pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal 
to two short ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded 
as long again as pin, tub, not. In English versification, an ac- 
cented syllable is long, an unaccented one is short. 

561 . — 4. Emphasis means that greater stress of the voice which 
we lay on some particular word or words, in order to mark their 
superior importance in the sentence, and thereby the better to con- 
vey the idea intended by the writer or speaker. 

562. — 5. Pauses, or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order 
to enable the reader or speaker to take breath •, and to give the 
hearer a distinct perception of the meaning, not onty of each sen- 
tence, but of the whole discourse. 
15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 94 

563. — 6. Tones consist in the modulation of the voice, and the 
notes, or variations of sound, which we employ in speaking, to 
express the different sentiments, emotions, or feelings, intended. 

**#A full consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would be as im. 
practicable as it would be out of place, since it would require a volume for that 
purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in works on elocution ; a sub- 
ject which is, or should be, taken up as a separate uranch of study. 

§ 94. VERSIFICATION. 
564 Versification is the art of arranging words 
into poetical lines, or verses. 

565. A Verse, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain 
number of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged 
according to fixed rules. 

566. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or 
verses taken together, whether rhyming with each other 
or not. A Triplet consists of three lines rhyming to- 
gether. 

567. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or 
lines, varying in number according to the poet's fancy 
and constituting a regular division of a poem or song 
This is often incorrectly called a verse. 

568. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last 
syllables of two or more lines arranged in a certain 
order. Poetry, the verses of which have this similarity 
is s6metimes called Rhyme. 

569. Blank Verse is the name given to that species 
of poetry which is without rhyme. 

FEET. 

570. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line 
is divided ; each of which consists of two or more syl- 
lables, combined according to accent. 

571 . In English versification, an accented syllable is accounted 
long ; an unaccented syllable, short. In the following examples, 
a straight line (-) over a syllable shows that it is accented, and 
a curved line, or breve (-^), that it is unaccented. 



§ 94. PROSODY. 171 

572. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as with 
out accent, often receive it when placed in a poetical line, and 
are long or short, according as they are with or without the ac- 
cent: thus, 

" To rouse him with the spur and rein, 
With more than rapture's ray." 

In the ancient languages, each syllable has a certain quantity, 
long or short, independent of accent, for which there are certain 
definite rules. In this, they differ widely from the English. 

573. Metre, or Measure, is the arrangement of a 
certain number of poetical feet in a verse or line. 

1. When a line has the proper metre, or number of feet, it is 
called Acatalectic. 

2. When it is deficient, it is called Catalectic. 

4. When it has a redundant syllable, it is called Hy per catalectic , 
or Hypermeter. 

574. A line consisting of one foot is called monome- 
ter ; of two, dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, te- 
trameter ; of five, pentameter ; of six, hexameter ; of 
seven, heptameter. 

575. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of 
which it is composed. 

576. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds; 
four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : 

I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES, 

1. An Iambus - — ; as. defend. 

2. A Trochee — ~; as, noble. 

3. A Spondee ; as, vain man. 

4. A Pyrrhic - - ; as, on a (hill), 

II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

1. AnAnapsest - - — ; as, intercede. 

2. A Dactyl — - - ; as, durable. 

3. An Amphibrach - — - ; as, abundant. 
.4. ,A Tribach ; as, (to)lerable. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 94 

577. Of all these, the principal are the Iambus, Tro- 
chee, Anapaest, and Dactyl. The other four feet are 
used chiefly in connection with these, in order to give 
variety to measure. 

578. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
unaccented*, as, noblg, music. 

579. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
accented-, as, adore, defend. 

580. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as, 
vain man. 

581. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented-, as, 
tin a (hill). 

582. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last 
unaccented-, as, virtuous. 

583. An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unac- 
cented, and the middle one accented; as, contentment. 

584. An Anapcest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the 
last one accented ; as, intercede. 

585. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented-, as, nu | m£ 
rabtt. 

586. A verse is usually named from the name of the 
foot which predominates in it ; thus, Iambic, Trochaic, 
Sec. 

I. IAMBIC VERSE. 

587. An Iambic verse consists of iambuses, and 
consequently has the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, 
&c. syllable. It has different metres, as follows: 

1. Iambic Monometer. The shortest form of Iambic 
verse consists of one iambus ; as, 
How bright 
The light! 

It sometimes assumes an additional or Irypermeter 
syllable ; as, 

Consent | ing, 
Repent | ing. 

We have no poem of this measure, but it is sometimes 

introduced into stanzas. 



^ 94 prosody. 173 

2. Iambic Dimeter. The second form of our Iam- 
bic is also too short to be continued through any num- 
ber of lines. It consists of two iambuses ; as. 

With Thee | we rise, 
With Thee | we reign, 
And em | pires gain 
Beyond 1 the skies. 

This form sometimes assumes an hyp^rmeter syllable ; 
as, 

Upon | a moun | tain, 
Beside | a foun | tain. 

3. Iambic Trimeter. The third form consists of 
three iambuses, and is continued only for a few lines; as, 

In pla | ces far | or near, 

Or fa | mous or | obscure, 

Where whole | some Is | the air. 

Or where J the most impure. 
This form sometimes admits an additional short sylla- 
ble ; as, 

Our hearts | no long | er Ian | guish. 

4. Iambic Tetrameter. The fourth form may extend 
through a considerable number of verses ; it consists of 
four iambuses ; as, 

How sleep | the brave J who sink | to rest, 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 

This also admits an hypermeter syllable ; as, 
From house | wife cares | a mi | nute bor | row. 

5. Iambic Pentameter. The fifth species, or Heroic 
measure, consists of Jive iambuses; as, 

Ye gilt | t'rlng towns, | with wealth | and splen | dour crown'd* 
Ye fields, where summer spreads profusion round; 
Ye lakes, whose vessels catch the busy gale-, 
Ye bending swains, that dress the flow'ry vale. 

This verse without rhyme constitutes the common 

blank verse. Such is Milton's Paradise Lost, 

15* 



V 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 94 

The Elegiac Stanza consists of four lines pentameter 
rhyming alternately ; as, • 

The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | Ing day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

This measure frequently admits an additional sylla- 
ble; as, 

Worth makes | the man, | the want | of it [ the fel | low t 
The rest is nought but leather or prune] lo. 

6. Iambic Hexameter. The sixth form of our Iam- 
bic is commonly called the Alexandrine measure ; it 
consists of six iambuses. 

For thou | art hut | of dust : b§ hum | ble and | be wise. 

The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic 
rhyme, and particularly into stanzas after the manner 
of Spenser, in his " Faery Queen ;" and when used 
sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agreeable 
variety. 

To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, 

To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, 

Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, 

And mortal foot hath ne'er, or rarely been-, 

To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, 

With the wild flock that" never needs a fold 5 

Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean-, 

This is not solitude 5 'tis but to hold 

Converse \ with Na \ ture^s charms, \ and vieiv | her stores | 
unrolVd. 

This also admits an hypermeter syllable ; as, 

The shop | herd him | pursues, | and to I his dog j doth hoi | low. 

7. Iambic Heptameter. The seventh and last form 
of Iambic verse consists of seven iambuses. 

The Lord | descend | ed from | above, | and bow'd | the hea { 
yens high. 



$94 



PROSODT. 



175 



This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now 
divided into two, the first containing four feet, and the 
second, three ; as, 

Thou didst, ( migh | ty God ! j exist | 

Ere time | began | its race-, 
Before the ample elements 

Fili'd up the void of space. 
This is what is called Common Metre. The Short 
Metre Stanza consists of four lines, of which the first, 
second and fourth contain three feet, and the third, 
four. Long Metre has four feet in each line, as above 
(No. 4). 

II. TROCHAIC VERSE. 

588. Trochaic verse consists of trochees, and con- 
sequently has the accent on the first, third, fifth, &c. 
syllable. 

1. Trochaic Monomeier. The shortest form consists 
of one foot ; as, 

Cheering, 
Veering. 

It sometimes admits an additional long syllable ; as, 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

2. Trochaic Dimeter. The next form contains two 
trochees ; as, 

Wishes | rising, 
Thoughts sur | prising, 
Pleasures | courting, 
Charms trans | porting. 

Sometimes this form admits an additional syllable ; as. 

In the | days ( f | old, 
Stories | plainly | told. 

3. Trochaic Trimeter. The third species contains 
three trochees ; as, 

When our I hearts are I mourning. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 94 

This form frequently has an additional syllable ; as, 

Vital | spark of | heav'nly | flame . 
Quit, oh [ quit this | mortal [frame! 

4. Trochaic Tetrameter. The fourth form consists 
of four trochees ; as, 

Round us | roars the | tempest | louder. 

This form sometimes assumes an additional syllable; as 
Where the | wood Is | waving | green and | high. 

5. Trochaic Pentameter. The fifth species is not 
very common ; it is composed of jive trochees ; as, 

All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, 

All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 
I 

6. Trochaic Hexameter. The sixth and last form 
consists of six trochees ; as, 

On a | mountain, | stretch'd be | neath a | hoary I willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 

Both the fifth and sixth species sometimes take an 
additional syllable, in which case the line is usually 
livided into two ; thus, 

5. Hail tS | thee, blithe | spirit! | bird thou | never | wert. 

Divided thus, 

Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! 
Bird thou | never | wert. 
6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, | over | Water | loo 

Divided thus, 

Night and | morning | were at ) meeting, 
Over | Water | loo. 

III. ANAP^STIC VERSE. 

589. Anapaestic verse consists chiefly of anapsesta 
and, when pure, has the accent on every third syllable. 

1. Anapcestic Monometer. This measure consists of 
one foot; as, 

In a sweet 
Resonance. 



f 

§ 94- PROSODY. 177 

2. Anapcestic Dimeter, The second form of Ana- 
psestic verse consists of two anapsests ; as, 
But his cou | rage, 'gan fail, 
For no arts | could avail. 

Sometimes this form assumes an additional short 
syllable ; as, 

Then his cou | rage, gan fail | him 
For no arts could avail him. 

3 t Anapcestic Trimeter. The third species, much 
used both in solemn and cheerful subjects, consists of 
three anapsests, and seldom takes an additional syllable. 

ye woods, | spread your branch | es apace, 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly, 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chase, 
I would vanish from every eye. 

4. Anapcestic Tetrameter. The fourth consists of 
four anapaests ; as, 

May I go | vern my pas | sions with ab | solute sway, 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 

This form sometimes contains an additional syllable; as, 

On the warm | cheek of youth, | smiles and r5 | ses are 
blend | Ing. 

IV. DACTYLIC VERSE. 
590. Dactylic verse consists chiefly of dactyls, and 
has the following varieties : 

1. Dactylic Monometer. This consists of one foot, as, 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 

This measure takes an additional long syllable, as, 

Over a | mead^ 
Pricking his | steed, 

2. Dactylic Dimeter. This consists of two dactyls; as, 

Free from sa | tiety, 
Care and an | xiety, 
Charms in variety 
Fall to his | share. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 94. 

The same with an additional long syllable ; as, 

Covered with | snow was the | vale; 
Sad was the | shriek of the | gale, 

3. Dactylic Trimeter. This form consists of three 
dactyls ; as, 

Wearing a | way in his | youthfulness, 
Loveliness, ( beauty and | truthfulness. 
This also may have an additional long syllable ; as, 
Weary and | worn, she has | waited for | years, 
Keeping her | grief ever | green with her | tears. 
Dactylic Tetrameter, Pentameter, and Hexameter, 
are seldom used ; when used, they are constructed by 
making the line consist of four, jive, or six dactylic feet. 
In Dactylic verse the last foot is not always a dactyl, 
a trochee being often used instead of it, and sometimes 
a single long syllable, making a hypermeter line in dac- 
tylic stanzas, as in the following : 

Faster come, | faster come, 

Faster and | faster-, 
Chief vassal, | page and groom, 

Tenant and | master. 
Peace to the | Isle of the | ocean, 
Peace to thy | breezes and | billows. 
Hail to the | Chief who in | triumph ad | varices ! 
Honor'd and | bless'd be the | ever-green | pine! 
Long may the | tree in his | banner that | glances, 
Flourish the | shelter and | grace of our j line. 

591. The following is an example of dactyls and 
spondees alternately : 

Green In the | wildwood, | proudly the | tall tree J looks on the 
| brown plain. 

The following is an example of pure dactylic hexa- 
meter : 

Over the | valley, with | speed like the j wind, all thS I 
steeds were ii | galloping. 



§ 94. prosody 179 

MIXED VERSES. 

592. The preceding are the different kinds of the 
principal feet, in their simple forms. They are capable 
of numerous variations, by the intermixture of those 
feet with one another, and by the admission of the se- 
condary feet, as will be seen by the following examples 

THE PTRHHIC MIXED WITH THE IAMBIC. 

And to [ the dead | my will | ing soul | shall go. 

THE SPONDEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 

Forbear | great man, j In arms | renown'd, | forbear. 

THE TBOCHEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 

Tyrant | and slave, | those names | of hate | and fear, 

THE FOLLOWING CONSISTS OF AN IAMBIC AND TWO ANAPAESTS. 

My sor | rows I then | might assuage 

In the ways | of reli | gion and truth-, 
Might learn | from the wis | dom of age, 

And be cheer'd [ by the sal | lies of youth. 

A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling 
iambuses and anapcests, as in the following lines : 

lc Ye may trace | my steps | o'er the wa | kening earth, 
By the winds | which tell | of the vi | diet's birth, 
By the prim | rose stars | of the sha | dowy grass, 
By the green | leaves o | pening | as I pass." 

V. OF BLANK VERSE. 

593. Our blank verse maybe reckoned a noble, bold 
and unencumbered species of versification, and in se- 
veral cases it possesses many advantages over rhyme 
It allows the lines to run into one another with perfect 
freedom ; hence it is adapted to subjects of dignity and 
force, which demand more free and manly numbers 
than can be obtained in rhyme. Blank verse is written 
in the heroic measure, consisting of ten syllables. The 
principal poets in this species of composition are Mil- 
ton, Thomson, Armstrong, Akenside, Cowper, and 
PoUok. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 95 

§ 95. COMPOSITION. 

594. Composition is the art of expressing our senti- 
ments in spoken or written language. It is of two 
kinds, Prose and Poetry. 

595. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are 
expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language. 

596. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and 
sentiments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more 
inverted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as 
to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 

597. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct oi 
indirect. 

598. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker de- 
livers his own sentiments. 

599. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person re- 
lates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said. 

600. In the first, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses 
the first person /or we. When he refers to the person or per- 
sons addressed, he uses the second person thou, you, etc. 

601. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker 
is reported as referring to himself, or to those whom he addresses, 
the third person is used in either case-, as, he, she, they, etc. An 
example will best illustrate the distinction-, thus: 

DIRECT DISCOURSE. 

602. Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said: "Ye 
men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too supersti- 
tious •, for as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an 
altar with this inscription-. ' To the Unknown God.' Whom, 
therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you.'" 

INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 

603. The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would 
run thus-. 

Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens he 
perceived that : i all things they were too superstitious-, for as 
he passed by and beheld their devotions, he found an altar with 
this inscription-. u To the Unknown God." Whom, therefore, 
they ignorantly worshipped, him declared he unto them. 

604. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person 
or persons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is 
no danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are 
the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun 
being used in the progress of discourse, to designate different 
persons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to 
insert the name or designation of the person meant by the pro- 
noun An example will best illustrate this also 



§ 9*. COMPOSITION. 181 

" Then the son went to his father and said to him, [direct] ; I 
have sinned against Heaven and in thy sight. 1 " 

" Then the son went to his father and said to him, [indirect] 
that he [the son] had sinned against Heaven and in his [his fa- 
ther's] sight.'" 

It will at once he perceived, that, without the words enclosed 
in "brackets, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whe- 
ther by the word he, the father or the son was intended-, so also 
w T ith respect to the word his. Hence, when by the indirect dis- 
course, ambiguity is unavoidable, it is generally better to have 
recourse to the direct form, and quote the writer's or speaker's 
own words, as in (602). 

605. The principal kinds of prose compositions are, 
narrative, letters, memoirs, history, biography, essays, 
philosophy, sermons, novels, speeches, and orations. 

606. The principal kinds of poetical compositions 
are, the epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poe- 
try, didactic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, elegy, 
lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic poetry [§ 91]. 

THE USE OF GRAMMAR IN COMPOSITION. 

607. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of 
composition, is an attainment of no small importance-, and to 
lead to this attainment is the business of grammar. The grammar 
of a language is just a compilation of rules and directions, agreea- 
bly to which that language is spoken or written. These rules, 
however, are not the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent 
on his authority for their validity. As it is the business of the 
philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, nor to dictate how her 
operations should be performed, but, by close observation, to as- 
certain what those laws are, and to state them for the information 
of others-, so the business of the grammarian is, not to make the 
laws of language, for language is before grammar, but to observe 
and note those principles, and forms, and modes of speech, by 
which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to 
arrange the results of his observation into a system of rules for 
the guidance and assistance of others. It is obvious, then, that 
the ultimate principle or test to which the rules laid down by the 
grammarian must conform, is the best usage. 

608. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or 
form of speech is right, is good English, the only question to be 
decided is, u Is it according to the best umge V On this subject, 
however, it has been made a question, "What is the best usage?" 
The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's work on 
English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just and compre- 
hensive of this whole subject . 

16 



189 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \ 95 

THE LAW OF LANGUAGE. 

609. First. The usage which gives law to language, in order 
to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, 
must be reputable ; by which is meant, not the usage of the court, 
nor great men, nor merely scientific men, but of those whose 
works are 'esteemed by the public, and who may therefore be de- 
nominated reputable authors. 

610. Secondly. This usage must be national. It must not be 
confined to this or that province or district. "Those, 11 to use 
Campbell's apposite similitude, " who deviate from the beaten 
road may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel 
in it • yet, into whatever number of by-paths the former may be 
divided, there may not be found in any one of these tracks so many 
as travel in the king's highway.' 1 

611. Thirdly. This usage must be present. It is difficult to fix 
with any precision what usage may in all cases be deemed pre- 
sent. It is perhaps in this respect different with different com- 
positions. In general, words and forms of speech, which have 
been long disused, should not be employed. And so, on the con- 
trary, the usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adop- 
ted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a fashion in lan- 
guage as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, de- 
light in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology. 
Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would ar- 
gue, not taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for singularity 
and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground, and 
receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be 
received, 

612. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which 
is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, 
ajid present. It happens, however, that " good usage 1 * is not 
always uniform in her decisions, and that in unquestionable au- 
thorities are found far different modes of expression. In such 
cases, the following canons, proposed by Dr. Campbell, wi\] 
be of service in enabling to decide to which phraseology the pre- 
ference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the words 
of the author* 

6 13. Canon 1. When the use is divided as to any 
particular words or phrases, and when one of the ex- 
pressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while 
the other adraits of only one signification, the expression 
which is strictly univocal should be preferred. 

614. Canon 2. In doubtful cases, analogy should 
be regarded. 

615. Canon 3. When expressions are in other re* 



$ 95. composition. 183 

spects equal, that should be preferred which is most 
agreeable to the ear. 

616. Canon 4. When none of the preceding rules 
takes place, regard should be had to simplicity. 

617. But though no expression or mode of speech can be jus- 
tified which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not 
follow, that every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be re- 
tained. In many such cases, custom may properly be checked 
by criticism, whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against 
the introduction of any word or phraseology which may be either 
unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to exclude whatever 
is reprehensible, though in general use. It is by this, her prero- 
gative, that languages are gradually refined and improved. In 
exercising this authority, she can not pretend to degrade, in- 
stantly, any phraseology which she may deem objectionable-, but 
she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually effect its dis- 
mission. Her decisions in such cases may be properly regulated 
jy the following rules, laid down by the same author: 

618. Rule 1. All words and phrases, particularly 
harsh and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed. 

619. Rule 2. When the etymology plainly points 
to a different signification from what the word bears, 
propriety and simplicity require its dismission. 

620. Rule 3. When words become obsolete, or are 
never used but in particular phrases, they should be 
repudiated, as they give the style an air of vulgarity 
and cant, when this general disuse renders them obscure, 

621. Rule 4. All words and phrases which, analy- 
zed grammatically, include a solecism, should be dis- 
missed. 

622. Rule 5. All expressions which, according to 
the established rules of language, either have no mean- 
ing, or involve a contradiction, or, according to the fair 
construction of the words, convey a meaning different 
from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed. 

623. In order to write any language with grammatical purity 
three things are required-. 

1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of 
this rule is called a barbarism. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 96 

2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules 
of syntax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a 
sola ism. 

3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has an- 
nexed to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety. 

624. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The 
solecism is an offence against the rules of syntax- and the impro~ 
priety is an offence against lexicography, by mistaking the mean- 
ing of words and phrases. 

§ 98. HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING 

625. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon 
the choice of words, and partly upon the form and 
structure of sentences. 

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things 
to be observed, are Purity, Propriety, and Precision. 

PURITY. 

626. Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases 
as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice 
of good writers and speakers. 

1. Avoid fo.eign words and modes of expression-, as, Fraicheur, 
politesse ; he repents him of his folly. 

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized* words 5 as, Albeit, afore- 
time, inspectoJor, judgmatical. 

EXERCISES. 

The person is without encumberment. In the country, w r e 
associate with none but the bettermost sort of people. Snails 
exclude their horns, aud therewith explorate their way. Me- 
thinks till now I never heard a sound more dreary. We walked 
arlown the river side. Peradveuture he may call to-morrow. He 
is a very impopular speaker. I like his great candidness of 
temper. 

PROPRIETY. 

627. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best 
adapted to express our meaning. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions-, as, to get into a scrape. 

2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical 5 as, 
this morn ; the celestial 01 bs. 

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who per- 
fectly understand them. 

4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different 
senses: as, the king communicated his intention to the minister, 
who disclosed it to the secretary, ivho made it known to the pub- 
lic- His own reason might have suggested better reasons. 

5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete 
the sense-, thus, instead of " this action increased his former ser- 



§ 96. 



COMPOSITION. 185 



vices," say. this action increased the merit of bis former services. 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions-, as, his memory 
shall be lost on. the earth. 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions-, as, I have 
an opaque idea of what you mean. 

EXERCISES. 

The composure of this psalm is attributed to David. They will 
meet at eve. Regard should be paid to the pupils 1 intended avo- 
cations. The observation of the Sabbath is incumbent upon every 
Christian. The negligence of this leaves us exposed to uncom- 
mon levity. He put an end to his own existence. I propose to 
give a general view of the subject. I wonder if he will come. 
He feels none of the sorrows that usually arrive at man. VVai 
should be so managed as to remember that its only end is peace. 
When Johnson was ill, he composed a prayer to deprecate God's 
mercy. There are both more and more important truths. He 
lives in a ione cottage. The Latin tongue in its purity was ne- 
ver in Britain. Imprudent associations disqualify us for the in- 
struction or reproof of others. 

PRECISION. 

b'28. Precision rejects the superfluous words. 

1. Avoid tautology- as, u his faithfulness and fidelity were un 
equalled.'' 1 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, 
thus, instead of, " though his actions and intentions were good, he 
lost his character:'''' say u he lost his reputation.'''' 

EXERCISES, 

I took some wine and some water, and mixed them both to- 
gether. He wandered throughout the whole city. They abhorred 
and detested being in debt. This man, on all occasions, treated 
those around him with great haughtiness and disdain. His wealth 
and riches being collected and accumulated in meanness, were 
squandered in riot and extravagance. Such conduct showed a 
marked and obvious intention to deceive and abuse us. He had 
proceeded but a short way on his journey, when he returned home 
again. 

II. With respect to sentences, Clearness, Unity, 

Strength, and a proper application of the Figures of 

Speech, are necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

629. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must 
be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and 
in such a situation as the sense requires. 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 

3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word 
for which they stand. , „* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- § 96. 

EXERCISES. 

By the articles subsisting between us, on the day of marriage, 
you agreed to pay down the sum of eight thousand pounds. Not 
to exasperate him, I only spoke a very few words. It has not a 
word, says Pope, but what the author religiously thinks in it. It 
is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the point. Ha^ 
he died before, would not then this art have been wholly unknovr*i? 
Most nations, not even excepting the Jews, were prone to idolatry. 
He will soon weary the company, who is himself wearied. 

UNITY. 

630. Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, 
or a series of clauses. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences, such clauses as have no im- 
mediate connection. 

2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the 
most prominent-, and the leading nominative should, if possible, 
be the subject of every clause. 

3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively 
remark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense 
of what goes befoie. 

EXERCISES. 

Desires or pleasure usher in temptation, and the growth of dis- 
orderly passions is forwarded. The notions of Lord Sunderland 
were always good, but he was a man of great expense. A short 
time after this injury, he came to himself-, and the next day they 
put him on board a ship, which conveyed him first to Corinth, and 
thence to the island of ^fegina. He who performs every employ- 
ment in its due place and season, suffers no part of time to escape 
without profit-, and thus his days become multiplied, and much 
of life is enjoyed in little space. Never delay till to-morrow, (for 
to-morrow is not yours -, and though you should live to enjoy it, 
you must not overload it with a burden not its own,) what reason 
and conscience tell you ought to be performed to-day. 

STRENGTH. 

631. Strength gives to every word and every member its due 
importance. 

1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and mem- 
bers. In the following sentence, the word printed in italics should 
be omitted-, u being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained 
submission." 

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which 
they will make the strongest impression. 

3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when 
the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
concluding one. 

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other, 
where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some 
resemblance in the language and construction should be preserved. 



$ 96. COMPOSITION. 187 

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, oi 
any inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it be emphatic. 

EXERCISES. 

It is six months ago. since I paid a visit to my relations . Sus- 
pend your censure so long, till your judgment be wisely formed. 
The reason why he spoke as he did, he never explained. If I 
mistake not. I think he has made great improvement since I last 
saw him. I'hose two gentleman appear both to be foreigners. I 
fear this is the last time that we shall ever meet. How many are 
there, by whom these tidings of good news were never heard. 
This measure may afford some profit, and furnish some amuse- 
ment. Thought and language act and re -act mutually upon each 
other. Sinful pleasures blast the opening prospects of human 
felicity, and degrade human honor. Generosity is a splendid vir- 
tue, which many persons are very fond of ? As no one is without 
his failings, so few want good qualities. 

632. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never, ex- 
cept when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear na- 
tural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued toe 
far. 

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended 
together. 

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be 
preserved throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. 

EXERCISES. 

No human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy. 
I intend to make use of these words in the thread of my specula- 
tions. Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the 
thickest gloom. Let us keep our mouths with a bridle, and steer 
our vessel so as to avoid the rocks and shoals which meet us at 
every step. We are all embarked on a troubled sea, and every 
step of our journey brings us into new perils. Let us keep alive 
the flame of devotion in the soul, and not suffer our minds to sink 
into utter indifference about spiritual matters. 

TRANSPOSITION AND VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

633. As a preparatory step to the important business of com- 
position, the pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of gram- 
mar, may be exercised with great advantage upon the transpo 
sition of words and members in sentences, so as to try in how 
many different ways the same thought or sentiment may be ex 
pressed. This will give him a considerable command of lan- 
guage, and piove. at the same lime, a source of considerable 
mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely new 
turn to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant 
jr even perspicuous. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 96 

There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a* 
thought may be varied. 

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an 
active verb-, as, The sun dissolves the snow-, The snow is dis- 
solved by the sun. 

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing 
the order in which the words stand in the sentence-, as, Compe- 
tence may be acquired by industry, By industry, competence may 
be acquired. 

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative 
into an affirmative, of an entirely contrary character-, as, Virtue 
promotes happiness-, Virtue does not promote misery. 

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words em- 
ployed to express any sentiment-, as, Diligence and application 
are the best means of improvement -, Nothing promotes improve 
ment like diligence and application. 

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the in- 
crease of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided 
it can be done with safety. A good man has respect to the feel- 
ings of others in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for 
a good cause is noble-, silently to surfer for it, is heroic. Provided 
he is himself in comfortable circumstances, the selfish man has 
no concern about the circumstances of others. The man who can 
make light of the sufferings of others, is himself entitled to no 
compassion. Sloth is one of man's deadliest enemies. He who 
made light spring from primeval darkness, will, at last, make 
order rise from the seeming confusion of the world. 

EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the in- 
crease of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the 
Roman state evidently declined. The Roman state, in propor- 
tion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined. 

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is 
better to be moved by false glory, than not to be moved at all. I 
shall attend the meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He 
who improves in modesty, as he improves in knowledge, has an 
undoubted claim to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion 
breathes gentleness and affability. There is no such obstacle to 
the attainment of excellence, as the power of producing, with 
facility, what is tolerably good. Industry is not only the in- 
strument of improvement, but the foundation of pleasure. A wolf, 
let into the sheep-fold, will devour the sheep. 

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sis- 
ter's conduct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode 



§ 96. COMPOSITION. 189 

of acting was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was 
less entitled to praise, than that of his sister, etc. 

Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for 
composition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young 
a list of words, with directions to form from them such sentences 
as shall contain these words. 

EXEUCISES. 

Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one 
or more of the following words: Contentment, behavior, conside- 
ration, elevation, distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse 
evidence, social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate 
consternation, temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, etc. 

LETTERS. 

634. One of the simplest and yet most useful species of compo- 
sition, is letter-writing. This species of composition may oe 
practised either by way of real correspondence between those pur- 
suing the same studies, or it may consist of letters written to 
imaginary correspondents. The following are a few topics adap- 
ted to compositions of this latter kind: 

Letter 1st. Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the 
object of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, 
and how you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. 
Give an account of some of the changes which have lately been 
made, or are now making in your neighborhood-, and conclude by 
expressing a desire either to see him, or hear from him soon. 

Letter 2d. Write to a companion an account of a long walk 
which you lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in 
company. Mention what particular things struck you by the 
way •, and enumerate all the incidents that occurred of any mo- 
ment. 

Letter 3d. Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent* you 
a present of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him 
the use you intend to make of them; and inform him to what 
particular books you are most partial. Conclude by giving some 
account of those you have lately been reading, and how you like 
them. 

Letter 4th. Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. 
Describe to him how you would feel if called to leave your friends 
and your native country. Express your regret at losing him, 
but state your hope that you will not forget each other when seas 
roll between you. Request him to write to you frequently-, and 
advise him to be careful about his health, and of the society he 
keeps. 

Letter 5tk. Write to a friend at a distance-, and give him an ac- 
count of a sail which ydu lately had in a *teara-boat» Mentitm 



190 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. <J 96 

what places you visited-, and state the objects that most delighted 
you. Tell him how long you w r ere away, what sort of weather 
you had, and what were your feelings upon returning home. 

Letter 6th. Write to a friend an account of the church you were 
at last Sabbath. Tell who preached-, mention the psalms or 
hymns that were sung- and the portions of Scripture that were 
read. State the texts from wmich the minister preached -, and 
give your opinion of the different sermons. 

These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upos 
which the student, who has acquired a knowledge of grammar, 
may be required to write. The prudent and skilful teacher wiii 
be enabled to multiply and vary them at pleasure, and to any extent. 

REPRODUCTION. 

635. Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in com- 
position, consists in reading some simple story or narrative, till 
such time as they are acquainted with the facts, and then direct 
ing them to express these in their own words. A still further, 
and perhaps even a simpler method, is, to take advantage of a 
young person's having- given some account of what he has either 
seen, heard, or read, and desire him to commit to writing what 
he has stated orally. 

THEMES. 

&B6. The next step in composition is the writing of regular 
themes. The subject, however, should always be such as is not 
above the capacity of the person who is desired to compose • for, if 
it is, the whole benefit resulting from the exercise will be nulli- 
fied. 

A theme is a regular set subject upon which a person is requir- 
ed to write ; or the dissertation that has been written upon such 
a subject. Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those 
drawn from natural history, or natural philosophy. At all events 
they should not, in the first instance, be drawn from subjects of 
an abstruse and abstract character. 

637. The following may serve as specimens in this department: 

Theme 1st. The horse. 1. Describe what sort of animal the 
horse is. 2. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the 
various ways in which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 
4. State what would be the consequence of wanting him. 5. 
Mention the treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of 
ill-using such a creature. 

Write themes on the cow, the dog, the sheep, and upon poultry , 
and follow the same plan as that which you followed in writing 
upon the horse. 

Theme 2d. The sun. 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 2, 
Tell all you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 
3. Mention the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we 



$ 96. composition. 191 

derive from it. 4. State what would be the consequence if the 
sun were extinguished; and what our feelings ought to be toward 
the Supreme Being, for such an object. 

Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air. and water; 
and in all, follow the same plan. 

Theme 3d. Day and night. 1. Tell what you mean by day 
and night. 2. State whether they are always alike long: and 
what is the advantage arising from their length being different 
at different seasons. 3. Mention the different purposes for which 
they are adapted. 4. Say of what the continued succession of 
day and night is fitted to remind us, and how this should lead us 
to act. 

Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains 1 
rivers, and the tides of the sea-, and follow a similar plan in all. 

Theme 4th. On Composition. 1. Explain what you mean by 
this term. 2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by 
showing how much it contributes to add to the value of one's 
knowledge. 3. Mention what is necessary to fit one for compos- 
ing well. 4. State the means by which skill in this art is to be 
obtained. 

Theme 5th. On Company. 1. Explain what you mean by 
company. 2. Show how natural it is for man to seek society, 
3. State the danger of keeping either too much company, or of 
keeping bad company. 4. Point out the advantages of good com 
pany. . 

Write themes upcti Conversation. Study, Improvement of Time, 
Choice of Books. Memory, the different Organs of Sense, etc. •, and 
in all follow the same method as you did in writing on Company. 

Theme 6r/i. Narratives. Describe the place or scene of the 
actions related — the persons concerned in — the time — posture of 
affairs — state of mind, motives, ends. etc. of the actors; — results. 

Write themes upon The discovery of America. The French 
War. The Revolutionary War. the Battle of Bunker Hill. 
The French Revolution. 

Theme 1th. Dissertations on remarkable events in sacred or 
profane history — The place — the origin — the circumstances — re- 
sults — moral influence, etc. 

Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a com- 
position on The Creation — Death of Abel — The Deluge — The 
\Vorld after the Flood — The Tower of Eabel — The Israelites in 
Egypt — Their deliverance from it — The giving of the law from 
Sinai — The Advent of the Messiah, his death, resurrection — 
Destruction of Jerusalem, etc. — The Siege of Troy — Rise and 
Fall of the Roman Empire — The Crusades — The Burning of Mos- 
cow — The Battle of Waterloo — The Death of Bonaparte, etc. 

Theme &th. Give an account of some of the most distinguished 
characters in different ages of the World — Warriors, Statesmen, 



192 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§96 



Artists, Philosophers, Poets, Orators, Divines, Philanthropists; 
— mentioning what is known respecting their country, parentage, 
education, character, principles, exploits, influence on society for 
good or evil, death. 

638. The following list of themes is selected from Parker's 
Exercises in Composition. 



1. On Attention, 



2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 

17- 

18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22, 
23. 
24. 
25. 



Adversity, 

Ardor of mind, 

Art, 

Attachment, 

Anger, 

Air, 

Benevolence, 

Beauty, 

Biography, 

Bad Scholar, 

Charity, 

Clemency, 

Compassion, 

Conscience, 

Constancy, 

Carelessness, 

Curiosity, 

Cheerfulness, 

Contentment, 

Diligence, 

Duplicity, 

Early rising, 

Envy. 

Friendship, 



26. On Fortune, 



27. 

28/ 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 

36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49 

50. 



Fear, 

Forgiveness, 

Government, 

Grammar, 

Greatness, true, 

Genius, 

Habit. 

Honour, 

Happiness, 

Humility, 

Hypocrisy, 

History, 

Hope, 

Indolence, 

Industry, 

Ingratitude, 

Justice, 

Learning, 

Love of Fame, 

Music, 

Moon, 

Novelty, 

Night, 

Order, 



51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 
55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 



On Ocean, 
" Pride, 
" Party Spirit, 
" Poverty, 
" Principle, 
" Perseverance, 
" Patriotism, 
<l Politeness, 
li Providence, 
" Punctuality, 
" Poetry, 
" Piety, 
" Religion, 
" Reading, 
" Sincerity, 
" Summer, 
" Spring, 
" Sun, 
" System, 
" Truth, 
" Time, 
11 Talent, 
" Vanity, 
" Virtue, 
Wealth 



7^. < 

91. Public Opfnion, 

92. Diligence ensures success, 
Idleness destroys Character, 
Contrivance proves design, 
Avoid Extremes, 
Visit to an Almshouse. 
Pleasures of Memory, 
Example better than Precept, 
Misery is wed to Guiit, 

100. Value of Time, 

101. Virtue the way to Happiness, 

102. No one lives for Himself, 
Thou God seest me. 
Trust not Appearances, 
Whatever is, is Right 

106. " An honest man's the noblest work of God." 

107. Every man the architect of his own fortune. 

108. Man, " Mysterious link in being's endless chain. ,, 

109 " A little learning is a dangerous thing." 

110 How blessings brighten, as they take their flight. 

111 Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass— of the, 

telescope —the steam engine — the art of printing— of gunpowdei 

112. History of a needle — a cent— a Bible — a beaver hat. 

113. Description of a voyage to England— Coast of Africa— Constantinople- 

South America— East Indies— China. 



76. Knowledge is Power, 

77. Progress of Error, 

78. Progress of Truth, 

79. Government of the Tongue, 

80. Government of the Temper, 

81. Government of the Affections, 

82. Local Attachments, 

83. The Power of Association, 
84 The Immortality of the Soul, 

85. The Uses of Knowledge, 

86. Power of Conscience, 

87. The Power of Habit, 

88. Life is Short, 

89. Miseries of Idleness, 

90. Never too old to learn, 



93. 
94. 
95. 
96. 
97. 
98. 
99. 



103. 
104. 
105. 



APPENDIX. 



I. GRAMMAR. 

The object of Grammar, in a general sense, is to investigate 
the principles of language, and from a careful analysis of these, 
to lay down a system of rules and principles, by observing which . 
we may be enabled to express our thoughts in a particular lan- 
guage in a correct and proper manner, buch a collection of rules 
and principles applicable to the English language, with directions 
for their use in the most simple, brief, and convenient manner, 
has been attempted in the preceding pages. 

When we speak of Grammar as a system of rules, it is not to 
be understood that the rules are first established, and the language 
afterwards modelled in conformity to these. The very reverse is 
the fact: language is antecedent to grammar. " No grammarian 
can of his own authority alter the phraseology of any expression, 
or assign to a word a signification different from that which has 
been allotted to it by established usage. He must take the lan- 
guage as it is, not as he would wish it to be. He may, indeed, 
recommend this or that mode of expression, as more agreeable to 
analogy, but it must remain with the public whether or not bis 
advice be adopted. From the decision of general, reputable, and 
established usage, there lies no appeal. His business is,to observe 
the agreement or disagreement of words, the similarity or dis- 
similarity between different forms of expression, to reduce those 
that are similar, under the same class, and, by a careful induction 
of particulars, establish general propositions. Nor is it abso- 
lutely necessary that he should know by what means this or that 
phraseology came into use, or why this or that word forms a/i 
exception to a general rule; it is sufficient for his purpose if he 
does know that it is an exception, and, knowing it, points it out 
to others. 

u By arranging the various rules and principles of a language 
into a systematic form, permanency is given to what would other- 
wise be subject to fluctuation, or involved in obscurity-, the rela- 
tive connection and importance of the rules become clearly ascer 
tained, and the whole is rendered more easy of being acquired 
and retained, and applied with facility and correctness. 

" Prior to the publication of Lowth's excellent little grammar, 
the grammatical study of our own language formed no part of the 
ordinary method of instruction, and consequently the writings of 
the best authors were frequently inaccurate. Subsequent to thai 
period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject, 
and the change that has taken place both in our written and oral 
language, has evidenced the decided advantages resulting froiu 
iuch a plan. 

17 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The Grammar which has attained the greatest celebrity for 
general use, is that by Mr. Murray. In this work, he has embo- 
died the principles and rules which were deduced by the most ce- 
lebrated grammarians that preceded him-, and by arranging the 
whole in a better order, has rendered it decidedly superior to 
every work of the kind which existed before its appearance." - 
Hiley's Preface. 

Since that time, many works have been published of various 
degrees of merit, most of which have had for their object, not so 
much to investigate more thoroughly the principles of language, 
as to simplify and elucidate principles already investigated. The 
Etymology and Syntax of Dr. Crombie, lately published, though 
not intended for the use of schools, is a most valuable addition to 
the stock of original works on this subject. u The industry of 
research, and acuteness of discrimination, which he has evinced 
in the collection and comparison of different forms of speech, 
have thrown great light upon many difficulties •, and his conclu- 
sions must, in general, serve as landmarks to the future traveller. 7 
Among recent valuable contributions to our stock of literature 63 
this subject, may be noticed the work of Mr. Harrison, on "The 
rise, progress, and present structure of the English language, 1 ' 
published in England in 1848, and republished here in 1850 -, and 
the large work of William C. Fowler, late Professor of Rhetoric 
in Amherst College, entitled " The English language in its Ele- 
ments and Forms." Some works of an eccentric character have 
also at times appeared, whose authors, smitten with a passion for 
novelty or singularity, have manifested much more capacity for 
pulling down, than for building up — for finding fault with that 
which is good already, than for producing something better in itj 
place. Still the labors of even these are not without their use. 
Like the violence of the tempest which shakes the sturdy oak, 
and causes it to strike its roots deeper and firmer in the parent 
soil, they only more firmly establish that which can not be 
overthrown. 

The principles of language, which grammar as a science inves- 
tigates, are general and permanent. They belong to all languages, 
and remain the same, however they may be classed, or in 
whatever terms they may be expressed. Hence it is that ^he 
grammars of all languages are substantially the same, and differ 
only in minor details, as idiom and usage require. This is as it 
should be. No good reason can be given for making a grammar 
of the English language, for example, toto cxlo, different from the 
grammars of other languages, ancient or modern. And yet it has 
been, and still is, the practice of some to declaim against the ex- 
isting systems of English Grammar, because, as they say, they 
are conformed to the grammars of the dead languages, or to those 
of foreign nations. Though such efforts may prevail for a season 
and with a few, more mature reflection usually dissipates the de- 
lusion. It is well known that novices in every science are con- 
stantly making discoveries \ and these appear to them for a time 



APPENDIX. 195 

«o important and wonderful, that they sometimes think they can- 
not fail to astonish the world, revolutionize the science, and im 
mortalize themselves. It happens, too, that such discoveries are 
usually in proportion to the want of discrimination and intelli- 
gence of those who make them. A more extended acquaintance 
with facts and principles will often prove, even to themselves, 
that their great discoveries are only the crude and exploded fan- 
cies of other men, and other days, long since abandoned as unte- 
nable and worthless. Discoveries of such a character are some- 
times made in grammar also-, and such, too, are often their origin 
and their end. 

The system of English grammar, as we now have it in the best 
works, or in what some are pleased to call the "Old Grammars," 
rests on a more solid foundation. Men of sound, discriminating, 
and philosophical minds — men prepared for the work by long stu- 
dy, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have la 
bored for ages to improve and perfect it •, and nothing is hazardea 
in asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long 
before another, equal in beauty, stability, and usefulness, be pro- 
duced in its stead. 

II. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

Language, written or spoken, consists of words. In combi- 
ning these into propositions and sentences, so as to express our 
ideas in a correct and intelligent manner, an accurate knowledge 
of their forms, changes, and functions, is necessary , and this again 
can be attained only by a proper classification of them according to 
their distinguishing characteristics and uses in the communication 
of thought. The importance of this has always been felt bj r 
grammarians, and various classifications have been made, differing 
from each other according to the principles assumed as their basis. 
The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently 
designated by the Noun and the Fieri; to which was subsequently 
added, the Conjunction. In modern times, the parts of speech 
have been denominated Substantives, Attributives, Definitives, and 
Connectives. Such a classification, however, is too general to be 
of much use in grammar. To group together under one head, 
words specifically different in their character and use, can tend 
only to confusion • and to multiply divisions which can serve no 
practical purpose, is an extreme equally unprofitable. 

By a careful analysis of language, we find that some words are 
employed to express the names of things, others to indicate theii 
qualities; some express action or state under various modifications? 
others are used in connection with these to point out circumstan- 
ces of time, place, manner, order, degree, etc. •, some are em- 
ployed to denote certain relations of things to each other, and 
others again chiefly to connect the different parts of a sentence 
together. This diversity in the use of words is as real, and as 
distinctly marked as the functions of the bones, muscies, arteries, 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and nerves or the human system, and forms a basis of classifica- 
tion equally proper in all languages. 

On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians 
divided words into eight classes or parts of speech; viz., the Noxm, 
Article, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and 
Conjunction. The Romans had no article, but retained the same 
number by distinguishing between adverbs and interjections. 
Both included under the term noun, the names of things, and 
words expressive of their qualities-, the former they called Sub 
stantive Nouns ; the latter, Adjective Nouns. These were subse- 
quently ranked as two distinct classes, commonly called Nouns 
or Substantives, and Adjectives ; and the participle was restored 
to the verb, to which it properly belongs. This classification, 
with little variation, has been adopted by the best English gram- 
marians, and remains in general use even at this day-, and though 
not absolutely perfect, or incapable of improvement, still it is suf- 
ficient for all practical purposes, and is perhaps, on the whole, 
the best that has yet been proposed. Objections to it merely on 
the ground that it agrees with the generally received classification 
of ancient, or foreign languages, are just about as reasonable as 
objections to the anatomical classifications of ancient or foreign 
nations would be, merely because they happen to differ in stature, 
complexion, or features, from ourselves. Such objections have 
been, and still continue to be made, the futility of which needs 
no better illustration than the fact, that, after all, their authors 
have offered little else in its stead, than the same ? or nearly the 
same divisions under different names. 

III. THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

The characteristic of this class of words, is that they are names. 
Every word that is the name of any thing that exists, whether 
material or immaterial, or of any thing that is or can be made 
the subject, of thought or discourse, is a noun. Hence it follows, 
that letters, marks, or characters, and words used independently 
of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of, are nouns-, thus, 
A is a vowel-, honor is sometimes spelled with a u, and sometimes 
without it-, th has two sounds-, us is a pronoun-, I will have no ifs 
or buis ; -\- is the sign of addition. Hence, also, the infinitive 
mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, 
forming together the subject of a discourse, or the object of a verb 
or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are 
in construction regarded as nouns, and are usually called ''sub- 
stantive phrases 5 " as, u To play is pleasant," u His being an ex- 
pert dancer is no recommendation," " Let your motto be ' Ho- 
nesty is the best policy.'' 1 '' 

The Accidents of the noun, in English, are, in general, the 
same as in other languages, i.e. they have Person, Gender, Num- 
ber, and Case ; though in the details of these, there is some di- 
versity in different languages, and even in different grammars of 
the same language. 



APPENDIX. 197 

IV. PERSON OF NOUNS. 

The person of nouns is not determined by any difference of 
form, as in pronouns, but simply by their relation to the discourse. 
In direct discourse,* a noun used by a speaker or writer to de- 
signate himself, is said to be of the first person-, used to desig- 
nate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person-, 
and,when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it is said 
to be of the third person. It is obvious then from the nature of 
the case, that those words only can be of the first or second per- 
son, which denote intelligent beings, or which by personification 
are regarded as such, for no other can either speak or properly be 
spoken to, and they are usually in apposition with the first 01 
second personal pronouns-, as, " I, Artaxerxes make a decree-," 
U I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto thee-," "Thou, God 
seest me," 

A noun in the predicate, however, denoting either the speaker, 
or the person spoken to, is generally regarded as in the third per- 
son-, thus, " I am he that liveth and was dead-," " I am Alpha 
and Omega — who is, and who was, and who is to come." For 
this construction, and the variation of meaning which a change 
of person commonly indicates, see § 59, R. II, Rem. This rule, 
however, does not hold universally. In the following sentence, 
u Verily thou art a God that hidest thyself, 11 the word " God," 
in the predicate, is evidently regarded as of the second person. 
So also in the phrases, " It is I," u It is thou," etc. In oblique 
discourse, the third person oniy can be used. 

As the name of the speaker, or of the person spoken to, is sel- 
dom expressed (the pronouns Zand thou, we and you, being used 
in their stead), it seems to be a useless waste of time, in parsing, 
to mention the person of a noun, unless it be in the first or second 
person, which will not happen more than once in a thousand times. 
Much time therefore will be saved, and no loss sustained, if it be 
considered as taken for granted, without stating it, that a noun 
is in the third person, unless it be otherwise mentioned. 

V. GENDER OF NOUNS. 

In all languages, the distinction of nouns with regard to sex, 
ftas been noted. Every substantive denotes either a male or 
female, or that which is neither the one nor the other. This 
accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender. 
In English, all words denoting male animals, are considered as 
masculine,' all those denoting female animals, feminine; and those 
denoting things neither male nor female, are termed neuter. "In 

*l)iscourse is said to be direct, when a writer or speaker delivers his own sen. 
timents ; as, " I am the man." Oblique^ when he relates, in his own language, 
the sayings of another; as, " He says that he is the man. 7 ' See Lat. Gr. § 141, 
Rule VI. 

17* 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

this distribution, 1 ' says Crombie, "we follow the order of nature. 
and our language is, in this respect, both simple and animated." 
Both in Latin and Greek, many words denoting things without 
sex, are ranked as masculine or feminine, without any regard to 
their meaning, but simply on account of their terminations. In 
French, all nouns are regarded as either masculine or feminine, 
which is a still greater departure from the order and simplicity of 
nature, for which the English language, on this point is distin- 
guished. 

Some have objected to the designation of three genders • they 
think that as there are but two sexes, it would be more philoso- 
phical and accurate to say there are only two genders: and to 
regard all words not belonging to these, as without gender. A 
little reflection, I think, will show that this objection has no just 
foundation, either in philosophy or in fact, and that the change 
it proposes would be no improvement. It has probably arisen 
from confounding the word gender, which properly signifies a 
kind, class, or species (Lat. genus, French genre), with the 
word sex, and considering them as synonymous. This, however, 
is not the case-, these words do not mean precisely the same thing, 
and they can not be properly applied in the same way. We never 
say, '• the masculine sex, the feminine sex-," nor " the male gen- 
der, the female gender.'" In strict propriety of speech, the word 
sex can be predicated only of animated beings 5 the word gender, 
only of the term by which that being is expressed. The being 
man, has sex, not gender-, the word man. has gender, not sex. 
Though therefore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet 
it may be very proper to speak of three genders-, that is to say, 
there are three classes (genders) of nouns, distinguished from 
each other by their relation to sex. One denotes objects of the 
male sex, and is called masculine ; another denotes objects of the 
female sex, and is called feminine; and the third denotes objects 
neither male nor female, for w r hich a name more appropriate thai? 
the term neuter need not be desired. 

The term u Common gender," applied to such w r ords as parer 
child, friend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of words, 
which are neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neuter, but is used 
for convenience, merely to indicate that such words sometimes 
denote a male, and sometimes a female. Instead of " common, 11 
those who prefer it, may call such words "masculine or feminine.'" 

VI. CASE OF NOUNS. 

In the ancient languages, and also in the modern languages of 
Europe, nouns in each number have certain changes of termina 
tion, called Cases, which serve to shew the relation existing be 
tween them and other words in the sentence. Of these, the Latin 
has six; the Greek, five; the German, four; the Saxon, six; the 
French, three; etc. In English, the only vaiiation of the noun in 
each number, is that used to mark possession, and, for this reason 



APPENDIX. 199 

ainmonly called the possessive case. The nominative and objec- 
tive do not differ in form, but only in their use-, the former being 
used to denote the subject of a verb, and the latter to denote the 
object of a verb or preposition. The propriety of this distinction 
is manifest, from the fact, that in personal and relative pronouns, 
the objective case is distinguished from the nominative by a change 
of form. 

VII. THE ARTICLE. 

The Article may properly be regarded as an adjective word, 
i. e. it is always employed in connection with a noun, or with 
words and phrases used as such. In Greek, and also in other 
languages, it is declined like the adjective, and comes under the 
same rules of concord with it. The Articles in English are A or 
an, and The. Of these, the first is used to individualize without 
restricting. It is therefore appropriately termed Indefinite, and 
is never used but with the singular number. 

This word is evidently a derivative of the Saxon numeral Ane 
(one), shortened by the absence of emphasis into An ; or it may 
be regarded as the same word used in a particular way. For the 
sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant-, and be- 
cause most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more 
common form. In the French, German, and other languages, 
which have the indefinite article, its form is the same with their 
numeral one, and, in reading or speaking, it is distinguished from 
it by emphasis only. Still, in these languages it is not regarded 
as a numeral, its office being specifically different. The office of 
the numeral is to designate number only — one as opposed to two 
or more. But though from its nature this article is joined only 
with the singular, yet number is not the idea it is used to convey, 
but simply to indicate an individual indefinitely. An example 
will illustrate this. If I say, u Will one man be able to carry 
this burden so far? 1 ' I evidently oppose one to more, and the an- 
swer might be, a No-, but two men will." But if I say, " Will 
a man be able to carry this burden?" it is manifest the idea is en- 
tirely changed • the reference is not to number, but to the species -, 
and the answer might be, u No-, but a horse will." Translate 
these two sentences into Latin or Greek, or any language which 
does not use the indefinite article, and the first will necessarily 
have the numeral, the second will as necessarily want it. In this 
respect, the English has manifestly a decided advantage over those 
languages in which the same term is used both as an article and 
a numeral-, and hence it appears to me, that to class this article as 
a numeral, as some have proposed, would not only be in some 
measure to relinquish this advantage, but, by combining under 
one head, words whose use is so widely different, would prove an 
injury instead of an improvement. 

The Article The, on the other hand, is used to shew that a word 
is restricted, or limited; and is therefore termed Definite. Its pro- 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 

per office is to call the attention to a particular individual orclae 
or to any number of such, and is used with nouns in either ti 
singular or plural nnrnber. This word seems to be derived fror 
the Saxon Se (that), plural Tha ; and is distinguished from the 
demonstrative? this, and that, much in the same way that a is 
distinguished from the numeral one. The Greeks had a separate 
word for this purpose, which the early grammarians called the 
prepositive Article, from its position before its noun-, and to dis« 
tinguish it from the relative pronoun which they called the post- 
positive Article, usually placed after it. These two words, in 
many sentences, were used relatively to each other, and, like a 
joint {Articulus), from which the name is derived, served to unite 
the two members of the sentence to which they respectively be- 
longed, into one whole. This designation, originally given to 
this word from one of its prevailing uses, continued to be applied 
to it not only after the postpositive article was more appropri- 
ately called the Relative pronoun, but also in cases in which no 
conjunction of the parts of a sentence was effected-, and modern 
grammarians have extended it to the word known as the Indefi- 
nite Article. Whether a more appropriate designation for these 
words should now be devised, or whether they might be classed 
under some other head, are questions of no practical moment. 
The words exist in the language-, they have a specific office to 
perform- they have peculiarities of construction which belong to 
no other class of words-, they are only two in number, and are 
easily distinguished from other parts of speech, and if these con- 
siderations should not be considered sufficient to entitle them 
strictly and philosophically to a separate denomination, they are 
such, at any rate, as to render it convenient and useful-, and if so, 
it seems unwise, for the sake of a trivial advantage, even if that 
could be gained, to disturb the settled language of grammar on 
this point, and so to destroy its present similarity to that of most 
other languages, in which this division and nomenclature are re 
reived. 

In many sentences, The and That are nearly equivalent, and 
the sense will be the same by using either- as, '"The man, or that 
man who hath no music in his soul," etc. This, how*ever, does 
not always hold-, " The difference," says Crombie, '"seems to be, 

1st. The Article the, like a, must have a substantive joined 
with it-, whereas that, like one, may have it understood; thus i 
speaking of books, T may select one and say, 'give me that-, 
but not, ' give me the? ' give me one? but not l give me a? 
Here the analogy holds between a and one — the and that. 

2d. u In general, the distinction between the and that seems 
to be that the latter marks the object more emphatically than the 
former, being indirectly opposed to this. I can not, for example^ 
say, fc that man w T ith that long beard, 7 without implying a con- 
trast with this man with this long beard j the word that being 
always emphatical and discriminative." 



APPENDIX. 201 

VIII. THE ADJECTIVE. 

"Words of this class are supposed to have been originally nouns, 
the names of qualities or attributes, and, from being joined to 
nouns whose quality or property they were employed to express, 
were called adjective nouns. In a more advanced state of lan- 
guage, with few exceptions, they cease to be used as nouns, and 
are employed to denote a quality, property, or attribute, not se- 
parately, but in conjunction with its subject-, thus, when we say, 
li a stone " we have the generic name of a certain substance, and 
no more-, but w r hen we say, t; a round stone,* 1 ct a hard stone," 
" a smooth stone,' 1 we have the generic name, limited and de- 
scribed by the attributes of roundness, hardness, smoothness; and 
these as inherent in or belonging to the substance stone. The 
adjective always implies the name of a quality or attribute, but 
does not present that idea alone to the mind, as when we speak 
of roundness, hardness, etc., but that idea in concreto — in conjunc- 
tion with its subject. Hence it follows that a word which does 
not add to its noun the idea of some quality or attribute as be- 
longing to it or connected with it, is not, strictly speaking, an ad- 
jective- and for this reason the articles, and the words generally 
ranked as distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite pronouns, 
though adjectives in construction, are not so in sense and mean- 
ing: They express no quality, property, or attribute of a noun, 
either separately or in connection with it, nor can they be predi- 
cated of it. On the other hand, all words which do make such 
an addition to the noun, may properly be regarded as adjectives, 
though they be often or generally used for other purposes. Thus 
the words wt gold,' 1 u sea, 11 " flower, 11 are nouns: but when we 
say u a gold watch, 11 " sea water, 11 " a flower garden, 11 they are 
used as adjectives. 

IX. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives denoting qualities or properties capable of increase, 
and so of existing in different degrees, assume different forms, to 
express a greater or less degree of such quality or property in one 
object compared with another, or with several others. These 
forms are three, and are appropriately denominated the positive, 
comparative, and superlative. Some object to the positive being 
called a degree of comparison, because, in its ordinary use, it does 
not, like the comparative and superlative forms, necessarily in- 
volve comparison; and they think it more philosophical to say, 
that the degrees of comparison are only two, the comparative and 
superlative. This, however, with the appearance of greater ex- 
actness, is little else than a change of words, and a change perhaps 
not for the better. If we define a degree of comparison ; a form 
of the adjective which necessarily implies comparison, 1 this change 
would be an improvement; but this is not what grammarians 
mean, when they say there are three degrees of comparison. Their 
meaning is, that there are three forms of the adjective, each of 



203 EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which, when comparison is intended, expresses a different degree 
of the quality or attribute in the things compared : thus, if we 
compare wood, stone, and iron, with regard to their weight, we 
would say, " wood is heavy, stone is heavier, and iron is the hea- 
viest.' 1 '' Each of these forms of the adjective in this comparison 
expresses a different degree of weight in the things compared : 
the positive heavy expresses one degree-, the comparative heavier, 
another-, and the superlative heaviest, a third- and of these, the 
first is as essential an element in the comparison as the second or 
the third. Indeed there never can he comparison without the state- 
ment of at least two degrees-, and of these, the positive form of 
the adjective, either expressed or implied, always expresses one. 
When we say u wisdom is more precious than rubies," two de- 
grees of value are compared, the one expressed by the comparative 
"more precious," the other necessarily implied : the meaning is, 
" rubies are precious, wisdom is more precious," Though, there- 
fore, it is true that the simple form of the adjective does not al- 
ways, nor even commonly denote comparison -, yet as it always does 
indicate one of the degrees compared whenever comparison exists, 
it seems proper to rank it with the other forms, as a degree of com- 
parison. This involves no impropriety, it produces no confusion, 
it leads to no error, it has a positive foundation in the nature of 
comparison, and it furnishes an appropriate and convenient appel- 
lation for this form of the adjective, by which to distinguish it in 
speech from the other forms. 

X. PRONOUNS. 

The term pronoun (Lat. pronomen) strictly means a word used 
for, or instead of a noun. In English, pronouns are usually di- 
vided into four general classes, personal, relative, interrogative, 
and adjective. The first or personal, includes also compound pro- 
nouns, which in the nominative are emphatic or definite, and in 
the objective, reflexive, § 15, Obs. 2. The second, or relative 
(except " that"), without any change of form, becomes interroga 
live in asking questions, § 17. All the words in these three classes, 
both in sense and construction, are used as nouns, and instead of 



XI. THE PRONOUN YOU. 

You, the common plural of thou, is now used also to denote ohe 
person -, but, even when it does so, it always takes a plural verb. 
This usage has become so fixed and uniform, that some eminent 
grammarians contend for its being regarded as singular. No ad- 
vantage, however, would be gained by adopting this proposal ; and 
it seems to accord much more with simplicity, as weii as witn fact, 
to regard it as a plural which has come by use to be applied in this 
manner. In certain kinds of writing (243), we is used in the same 
way, and so also is the corresponding pronoun in French, and 



APPENDIX. 203 

some other modern langujges, in which, however, it is always 
regaided as a plural form.^ 

XII. AS, NOT A RELATIVE. 

The word as, is by some grammarians considered as a relative. 
That it should not be considered a relative in any circumstances, I 
think is plain from the following considerations-. 

1. It has neither the meaning, nor the use of a relative. Its of- 
fice is simply to connect things compared, and, together with its 
antecedent word, to express the idea of equality, likeness, fyc. be 
tween them; thus, ' : James is as tail as his father." " Your hat 
is such as mine." 

2. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before 
it, called the antecedent, nor stand instead of it. or of any othei 
word, but is related only to the comparative word, as, such, so % 
etc., in the preceding clause. Thus, in the sentence, ' 'As many 
as received him," the second as relates to the first, and the two 
convey the idea of equality. Again, " Send such books as you 
have." Here, as refers not to books, buc to such. Take away 
such, and as can not be used. 

3. As can never be used as a substitute for another relative pro- 
noun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. If, then, 
it is a relative pronoun, it is, to say the least, a very unaccommo- 
dating one. 

4. In sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently 
has the same meaning and use as in those in which it is allowed to 
be only a conjunction. Compare the following examples : ;i As 
many as five men received a reward." ;i As many as received 
him." u As many as they can give." In all these, the phrase 
" as many as" means, and is felt to mean, the same thing; equality 
of number. There surely, then, can be no propriety in calling the 
second as a conjunction in the first sentence, and a relative in the 
other two. The same thing will be evident if we change the ante- 
cedent word; thus, ii Such books as these are useful." "Such 
books as are useful." " Such books as you can give." 

5. If the word as in the preceding sentences and clauses is a re- 
lative pronoun, for the same reasons alleged for this, the word than 
must be a relative in those which follow. The construction is 
precisely the same : ;t More than five books were wanted." 
" More books than are useful." " More books than you can give.' 
Now, if, in the second of these examples, than is not a relative in 

*" The pronoun you. though originally and properly plural, is now generally 
applied alike lo one person or to more. This usage, however it may seem to 
mvolve a solecism, is established by that author iiv against which the mere gram. 
manan has scarcely a r;ghtto remonstrate. We do not, however, think it neces- 
sary or advisable -to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by introdu. 
cing this pronoun and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular. It is ma. 
aifestly better to say that tine plural is used for the singular, by the figure encd- 
lageS'—Goold Brown, p. 13?. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the nominative case before are, nor in the third a relative in the 
objective case after can give, what need for considering as a rela- 
tive in the same position, in the same construction, and for the 
same purpose, to denote comparison? There is the same ellipsis 
in both, and the same words necessary to be supplied, in the one 
case, as in the other- thus, "More books than [those which] 
were wanted.'" " More books than [those which] are useful,' 1 etc. 
So, "Such books as (those which] were wanted." " As many 
books as [those which] are necessary," etc. 

XIII. THE RELATIVE WHAT. 

u Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of 
the relative what. It is said to be 'a compound relative pronoun, 
including both the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to 
tha,t which, or, the thing which.' 1 Though this may seem plausible, 
yet we shall find, on examination, that what is nothing more than 
a relative, and includes nothing else. Compare these two sen- 
tences : 

"' I saw whom I wanted to see 1 — 

" c I saw what I wanted to see. 1 

u If what, in the latter, is equivalent to that ivhick, or the thing 
which ,- whom, in the former, is equivalent to him whom, or the per- 
son whom. ' Who steals my purss steals trash ' is equivalent to 
he who. or the man ivho. 

" And on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the 
antecedent should be represented as equivalent to the relative and 
the antecedent. Thus, ; I saw the man I wanted to see. 1 Here, 
man should be represented a-s equivalent to the man whom. 

" The cause of the error in respect to what, is, that the antece- 
dent is never expressed with it. It is not like the word who, 
which is used both when the antecedent is expressed, and when 
it is omitted. The relative that, however, was formerly used in 
many cases where we use what, that is, with the antecedent 
omitted. A few examples of this will help us to ascertain the 
nature of what : ' We speak that we do know. 1 — English Bible. — 
'I am that I am. 1 — lb. 

« * Who had been seen imagine mote thereby, 

That whylome of Hercules hath been told. 1 — Spenser. 
u ; Eschewe that wicked is. 1 — Gower. 

M £ Is it possible he should not know what he is, and be that he 
is. 1 — Shahs. 
" i Gather the sequel by that went before. '—lb. 

11 In these examples, that is a relative, and is exactly synony- 
mous with what. No one would contend, that that stands for 
itself and its antecedent at the same time. The antecedent is 
omitted because it is indefinite, or easily supplied. 11 — Butler's 
Grammar, p. 48. 

These remarks appear to me just and conclusive on this point. 



APPENDIX. S05 

XIV. ADJECTIVE PEONOUNS. ■ 

The fourth class, called adjective pronouns, and sometimes pro- 
nominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into possessive, distri« 
butive, demonstrative, and indefinite. Of these, the first or pos- 
sessive are derived from the personal, and in meaning are strictly 
pronouns, being always the representative or substitute of a noun; 
but in construction they are adjectives, and are always joined with 
a noun, and hence are appropriately denominated adjective pro- 
nouns, i. e. pronouns used adjectively. .By some, they are less 
appropriately classed with adjectives, and called pronominal ad- 
jectives. 

In many grammars the possessives my, thy, his, her, its, our, 
your, their, are set down as the possessive case of the personal 
pronouns, with mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, 
making two forms of the possessive case; thus, my or mine, thy 
or thine, etc. In the use of these forms this difference is to be 
observed, viz. that the first is always followed by a noun deno- 
ting the thing possessed-, as, "this is my book :" the latter never 
has the noun following it, but seems as it were to include it, as 
well as to be governed by it-, as, "this book is not mine," equi- 
valent to " this book is not my book." The possessive case of the 
noun is used both ways-, as, u this is John's book," or, " this book 
is John's." Which of these methods is adopted in teaching or stu- 
dying grammar, is a matter of no practical moment : some gram- 
marians adopt the one, and some the other, merely as a matter of 
taste, without any controversy on the subject. The classification 
in the text is preferred as being on the whole more simple, because 
the possessives my, thy, etc., like the adjective, can never stand 
alone, as the possessive case does, but must be supported by a noun 
following them-, thus, we say, " It is the king's-," " It is yours-," 
but we can not say, " It is your," the presence of a noun being ne- 
cessary to the last expression -, and because if these w r ords are ranked 
as the possessive case of the personal pronoun, it unnecessarily 
leaves the English language without a class of words correspond- 
ing to the possessive pronouns of other languages. They have pre- 
cisely the same meaning as the Latin Meus, mea, meum; or tha 
French Mon, ma; ot the German Mein (or meiner), meine, mein; 
or the Anglo-Saxon (which is the mother of the English language), 
Min, mine, min • they are used in precisely the same way. 

There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them adif 
ferent classification. Indeed, the only circumstance which renders 
it possible to regard them as a possessive case in English, is that 
like the English adjective they are indeclinable. Had they been 
declinable, like the Latin or French, etc., they never could have 
been used as a possessive case. 

Some, again, regard my, thy, etc. as the only forms of the posses- 
sive case-, and mine, thine, etc. not as a possessive case at all, but as 
a substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun, and the noun re- 
ferred to, together-, and that it is in the nominative or objective case 
18 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

aceoiojing as the noun referred to would be, in the full expression; 
thus, Your hook is old, mine is new," is equivalent to "Your book 
is old, my book is new." Hence it is inferred that mine is not a pos- 
sessive case, but a substitute for my book, and the nominative to is. 
This, though plausible, is obviously incorrect. If, instead of the pro- 
noun mine, we substitute a noun, that noun will have to be in the 
possessive case-, thus, u Your book is old, John's is new." The 
construction in these two sentences being identical, if "Jo/mY' is 
the possessive case, so also is ci mine ;" and if in the possessive, it 
can not be the nominative to u is." The mistake lies in considering 
mine a substitute for my book, whereas it really is a substitute only 
for my, including such a reference to the word book in the preceding 
part of the sentence, as renders its repetition in the second part not 
only unnecessary, but, according to the usage of the language, im- 
proper. The difference between the construction of the noun and 
the pronoun, in such sentences, is simply this-, the possessive mine, 
thine, etc., according to usage, are never used before a noun, but the 
possessive of the noun is used both before a noun and after it. 
When it is deemed proper to express the noun after the pronoun, 
the form mine, etc. must be changed for my, etc. Thus, we can 
not say, u Mine book," but u My book-," but we can with equal 
propriety say, u John's book," or, " The book is John's. 1 '' 

In the same manner may be explained the use of the possessive 
after transitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions-, 
thus, " James lost his books, and I gave him mine," meaning my 
books; " A picture of the king's," is a picture of (i. e. from) the 
king's pictures. So, " A book of mine," is a book of [from] my 
books. " A friend of yours," is a friend of [from] your friends. 
It is worthy of notice, that though this use of the possessive after 
of, originally and strictly implies selection, or a part only, it has 
insensibly come to be used when no such selection is, or even can 
be, intended. Thus we may say, " That house of yours," u that 
farm of yours," without intending to imply that any other hou- 
ses or farms belong to you-, and when we say, " That head of 
yours," selection is obviously excluded by the sense. 

The words belonging to the other three divisions, have been 
found more difficult to arrange in a satisfactory manner. They 
seem to occupy a sort of middle ground between adjectives and 
pronouns, and are sometimes used as the one, and sometimes as 
the other, without the strict and appropriate character of either. 
They are not adjectives in sense as, already shewn (App. VIII); 
but they are generally adjectives in construction, having a noun 
expressed or understood, which they serve to limit or restrict in 
various ways. On the other hand, with few exceptions, they are 
so often used without a noun, or as its substitute, that they are not 
improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than 
the others; thus, "Let each esteem others better than themselves." 
" Among men, some are good, others bad, none perfect." u All 
things come alike to all," etc. 

From this equivocal or rather double character of these words 






APPENDIX. 207 

they have been variously arranged by different authors. Some, 
among whom are Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Sutcliffe, Allen, Coo- 
per, Brown, etc. class them with adjectives, and call them ''Pro- 
nominal Adjectives;" and others, such as Lowth. Priestly, Smart, 
Murray, Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright, Cobbet, Kirkham, 
Smith, and many others, class them with pronouns, and call them 
•' Adjective Pronouns." Since all are agreed about the use of 
these words, it seems in itself a matter of less importance to 
which of these two classes they be attached, or whether they are 
more appropriately called Pronominal Adjectives, or Adjective 
Pronouns. But as in the Latin and Greek, and in most, if not all 
European languages, almost all of the corresponding words are 
ranked uniformly as adjective pronouns 5 and as there is no neces- 
sity for, and no advantage to be derived from a different classifi- 
cation, it seems to be unwise, merely for the sake of change 
or the love of singularity, to depart from this arrangement in 
English. 

XV. THE VERB. 

Though there is little, if any, difference of judgment among 
grammarians as to what a verb is, yet all have probably found it 
a difficult ma/^r to give an accurate, and at the same time a brief 
definition of it ; and, accordingly, nearly all grammars differ in 
their definition of this part of speech. The old definition, that 
u a verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer," 
though unexceptionable as any, as far as it goes, is yet greatly 
defective in stating nothing respecting the function or use of this 
part of speech. 

The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or declare , 
and that of which it affirms is called its subject or nominative. 
This is always the office of the verb in the indicative, potential, 
or sabjicnctive. In the use of its other parts, however, namely 
the imperative, infinitive, and participles, there is properly no af- 
firmation, though the action or state expressed by the verb in these 
parts is clearly seen to be the act or state of some person or eking, 
and which for that reason is stridly and properly, though not 
technically, its subject. Thus, " For me to die is gain," is a 
simple proposition, containing two verbs, the first of which, to 
die, in the infinitive, expresses no affirmation, though it evidently, 
without affirming, attributes dying to a person, expressed by the 
word me. So when we say, " I see a man walking," the word 
walking expresses an act of the person man, though there is pro- 
perly no affirmation. In like manner, when I say, ;t Do this," 
the verb do attributes action imperatively to the person addressed, 
but there is no affirmation. To speak of ''affirming imperatively" 
is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a better ex- 
pression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense. 

For these reasons, the definition of a verb which say3 it is "a 
part of speech which asserts or affirms " appears to me to be de- 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

fective. It states one function of this class of words . but excludes, 
or at least does not include, others. It gives, as the distinguishing 
characteristic of a verb, that which does not belong to it in seve- 
ral of its parts and uses. It is too restrictive. 

The definition formerly given in this work, is liable to an ob- 
jection of an opposite kind : it is too general, and not sufficiently 
distinctive. A verb does, indeed, " express an action or state," 
but there are other words that do so also. Nouns, such as love, 
desire, wish, hope, etc., and most verbal nouns, such as eruption, 
friction, collision, diffusion, progression, etc., express action; and 
many words, both nouns and adjectives, express a state. 

The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexcep- 
tionable, occupies a middle place between these extremes, avoids 
the indefiniteness of the old definition, and is probably less liable 
to objection than most of those which have been given. 

XVI. DIVISION OF VERBS. 

The division of verbs into Transitive and Intransitive is now 
so generally adored by grammarians, instead of the former di- 
vision into Active, Passive, and Neuter; and its propriety and 
simplicity so obvious, that it seems now unnecessary to argue 
the point. Of this division, it is necessary only to observe — 

1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transitive and Intran- 
sitive, distinguished by a clear and definite characteristic, derived 
from their use in the construction of sentences. To the first, be- 
long those which are used transitively, whatever be their mean- 
ing or form-, and to the second, all that are used intransitively, 
whether they denote action or not (§ L9). 

2d. This arrangement and nomenclature leaves the terms Ac- 
tive and Passive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two 
forms which all transitive verbs assume, called the active and 
the passive voice. 

3d. It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, as applied to 
verbs, and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the desig- 
nation of gender only. 

XVII. MOODS. 

Some grammarians are of opinion that no more moods or tenses 
ought to be assigned to the verb in English, than are distinguished 
by difference of form in the simple verb. This principle rejects 
at once the whole passive voice-, and in the active, retains only 
the present and past tense of the indicative mood, and the present 
of the subjunctive. To carry out this principle to its full extent, 
we should reject also the plural number of the tenses that are 
left-, for this is always in the same form with the first person 
singular. This certainly reduces the English verb to very nar- 
row limits, and renders it a very simple thing-, so simple, indeed, 
as to be of little use, being capable of expressing an action or 
state only in two relations of time. 



APPENDIX. 209 

This simplification of the verb, however, tends only to perplex 
rhe language, for though it reduces the number of rroods and 
tenses, it does not, and can not. reduce the number of the forms 
of speech, by which the different times or modes of action are 
expressed. It is certain, for example, that we have such forms 
of speech as. u have loved,' 1 L ' shall love," "might love,' 1 etc 
Now since these and other similar forms of speech express only 
different relations of time and manner of the one act, ''to love," 
ft certainly does seem more easy and simple to regard them as 
different moods and tenses of the verb to love, than to elevate the 
auxiliary to the rank of a principal verb, and then to combine 
them syntactically with the verb to love. Indeed, to dispose of 
them in this way satisfactorily, is not a quite easy or simple mat- 
ter. For example, in the sentence, " I have written a letter, 11 it. 
is easy enough to say that have is a verb transitive, etc., and 
written a perfect participle-, but when we inquire, what does 
have govern? what does written agree with? a correct and satis- 
factory answer will not be so easily found. This example will 
perhaps show that it is much easier, and quite as satisfactory, to 
rank the expression as a certain mood and tense of the verb "to 
write. 11 

This theory has its foundation in the supposition that a tensa 
or mood must necessarily mean a distinct form of the simple verb. 
This supposition, however, is entirely gratuitous. There is no- 
thing in the meaning of the word mood or tense, which counte- 
nances it. A verb is a word which expresses action-, tense, ex- 
presses the action connected with certain relations of time: mood, 
represents it as further modified by circumstances of contingency, 
conditionality, etc. -. but whether these modifications are expressed 
by a change in the form of the simple verb, or by its combinatisn 
with certain auxiliaries, seems to be a matter perfectly indifferent. 
Indeed, the generally received opinion is, that the different forms 
of the verb, denominated mood and tense, in Latin and Greek, are 
nothing more than the incorporation of the auxiliary with the 
root of the simple verb. If so, why should not the uniform jux- 
taposition of the auxiliary with the verb, to answer the same 
purpose, be called by the same name? If a certain auxiliary, 
connected with a verb, express a certain relation of time, properly 
denominated the future tense-, what essential difference can it 
make, whether the two words combine into one, or merely stand 
together? On the whole, then, there is nothing gained by the 
proposed simplification -. Indeed, on the contrary, much, even of 
simplicity, is lost; and it moreover deprives our language of the 
analogy which it has in mood and tense with other languages, 
modern as well as ancient-, and if adopted, instead of smoothing 
the path of the learner, it would tend only to perplex and obscure it. 

INDICATIVE AND POTENTIAL. 
The indicative mood attributes to its subject the act, being, or 

18* 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

state expressed by the verb simply and without limitation. The 
potential mood attributes to the subject not the act, etc., expressed 
by the verb, but only liberty, power, will, or obligation with re- 
spect to it ; that is, the potential mood expresses not what the 
subject does or is, but only what it may, can, must, might, 
could, would, or should do or be, etc. 

The auxiliaries may, can, etc., in the potential mood, in all 
probability, were at first independent verbs in the indicative, fol 
lowed by the verb in the infinitive, without the sign to before it 
as it is now used after such verbs as see, hear, feel, let, etc. Gram- 
marians now generally combine them as one word, constituting a 
particular form of the verb, to which they have given the name 
of potential mood, from its leading use. The indicative and po 
tential both declare, but they declare different things ■ the former 
declares what the subject does, or is ; the latter, what it may or 
can, etc., do or be. The declaration made by the indicative is 
simple-, that made by the potential is always complex, contain- 
ing the idea of liberty, power, etc., in connection with the act. 
u He writes,'* is the indicative of the verb to write. u He can 
write," is the indicative of the verb can, with the infinitive of to 
write ; or, combined, the potential of the verb to write. 

XVIII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

This mood, as its name implies, is always subjoined to, and 
dependent on, another verb expressed or understood. u If he 
study, he will improve ;" u O [I wish] that thou wert," etc. 

The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in the 
present tense only$ in the verb to be, in the present and past. 

Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive particle 
prefixed, are used subjunctively-, that is, they are used to ex- 
press what is conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on 
another verb-, as, u If he sleeps, he will do well-," " He would go 
if he could" (go). 

The conditionality or contingency, etc. expressed by this mood, 
is usually intimated by such conjunctives as, if, though, lest, un*. 
less, so, etc. prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb. 

The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunc- 
tion, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject 
or nominative-, as, ,' Had I," for t; If I had;" u Were he." for 
il If he were;" u Had he gone," for u If he had gone;" " Would 
he but reform," for '''If he would but reform," etc. 

Most grammarians consider the subjunctive present only as an 
abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential, 
and that the supplement may always be made-, thus, "If he 
study " etc. that is, if he shall (or should) study," etc.-, u though 
he [should] come,' 1 etc. This view is plausible, and may apply 
to the present tense of the subjunctive in most eases 5 but it will 
not apply to the past subjunctive of the verb to be, either as a 
principal or an auxiliary. For though we might say, u If I 



APPENDIX. 211 

should be," for "If I be," yet we can not say, { If I should wereV 
And there are some cases in which the present subjunctive form 
seems to be indispensable-, as, " See thou do it not 5" "If he do 
but try, he will succeed -," still — 

The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling 
greatly into disuse. The tendency appears to be to lay it aside, 
and to use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can 
be done. According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only 
when it has a future reference-, as, " If he come [viz. at a future 
time], he will be welcome." The same idea is expressed by say- 
ing," "If he comes" (186, I. 5), "If he shall come ;" and one or other 
of these expressions is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. 
Formerly, in cases of supposition, the present subjunctive was 
used, whether it had a future reference or not-, as, " Though God 
he high, yet hath he respect to the lowly." In all such expressions, 
according to present usage, the present indicative w r ould be used-, 
thus, " Though God is high," etc. 

XIX. The participle in ing in a passive sense. 

According to the definition, the passive voice expresses, pas- 
sively, the same thing that the active does actively. For exam- 
ple, Caesar conquered Gaul," and "Gaul w T as conquered by Caesar," 
express precisely the same idea. This, however, is not always 
done by the regular passive form in the present tense, though it 
is generally done in the other tenses. Thus, it will be felt at 
once that the expressions, " Caesar conquers Gaul," and " Gau! 
is conquered by Caesar," do not express the same thing. 

In regard to this matter, there are evidently two classes of verbs : 
namely, those whose present passive expresses precisely the same 
thing, passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in 
which it does not. 

I. To the first of these classes belong — 

1. All those verbs which, in the regular present passive, imply 
a continuance of the act; such as, to love, to hate, to regard, to 
esteem, to envy, to please, etc. Thus, "James loves me," and "I 
am loved by James," express precisely the same idea, and con- 
sequently continuance is implied as much in the passive form as 
in the active. Hence, " is loved," is a true present passive, both 
in form and meaning. In verbs of this class the progressive form 
in the active voice is seldom used, because it would express the 
same thing generally as the common form- thus, "James loves 
me," and " James is loving me," express the same thing. 

2. To this class belong all verbs when used to express general 
truths, orw T hat is usual or customary from time to time-. Thus, 
"Vinegar dissolves pearls-," "Vice produces misery-" "The cob- 
bler mends shoes-," " Masons build houses," etc. These verbs, 
used in this way, express precisely the same thing in the regular 
passive form as they do in the active. Thus, "Pearls are dis- 
solved by vinegar-," " Misery is produced by vice;" " Shoes are 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

mended by the cobbler-," u Houses are built by masons,'' etc In 
verbs used in this way, the progressive form is not employed. 
The use of it would change the meaning from a general ex- 
pression to a particular act. Thus, "Vice is producing misery," 
would immediately direct the mind, not to a general truth, but 
to a particular case. But, again, when these verbs express a 
particular act, and not a general truth, the active and the passive 
present express different ideas-, thus, "James builds a house, " 
represents an act in progress ; but when we say, w A house is 
built by James," the act is represented as completed. 

3. To this class belong all verbs which, by the figure called 
vision (552-5), are used in the present tense to express what is 
past. Thus, " Caesar leaves Gaul," crosses the Rubicon, enters 
Italy." Passively, u Gaul is left by Caesar, the Rubicon is 
crossed, Italy is entered. In all these, used in this figurative way, 
the present passive expresses the same thing as the present, 
active. 

II. The second class of verbs consists of those (perhaps the 
greater number) whose present passive implies that the act ex- 
pressed by the active voice has ceased, and the effect or result 
only remains as a finished act, and as such is predicated of the 
subject. Thus, " The house is built." Here it is implied that 
the act of building is completed, and has ceased-, and the result, 
expressed by built, is predicated of the house. In all verbs of 
this kind, the past participle, after the verb to be, has reference 
to the state resulting from the act as predicated of, or qualifying 
the subject of the verb, and not to the act itself. Strictly speak- 
ing, then, the past participle with the verb to be is not the pre- 
sent tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used- that is, this 
form does not express passively the doing of the act. These verbs 
either have no present passive, or it is made by annexing the par- 
ticiple in ing, in its passive sense, to the verb to be;" as, " The 
house is building.'''' 

It is supposed by some that u is built,'''' although in the form 
of the present passive, really is a present-perfect-, because it re- 
presents the act as completed, and because the perfect-definite, in 
Latin, is often translated by this form into English. Due con- 
sideration, however, I think will show that it differs quite as 
much from the present-perfect as it does from the present. To be 
satisfied of this, compare the following expressions: " This gar- 
ment is torn," merely asserts the present state of the garment, 
with no reference to the act but what is implied; but when we 
say, u This garment has been torn," the reference is chiefly to the 
act as having been done, with no reference to the state of the 
garment but what is implied. The one asserts that the garment 
remains torn, the other does not — it may have been mended-, the 
latter is the regular passive of the present-perfect active, the for- 
mer is not. This will perhaps be more clearly perceived by 
means of another example : u This house has been painted, bat 



APPENDIX. 213 

tiie paint is worn off." This is good English-, but if we should 
say, " This house is painted, but the paint is worn off," we would 
assert a contradiction. 

There is properly no passive form, in English, corresponding 
to the progressive form in the active voice, except where it is 
made by the participle in ing, in a passive sense-, thus, "The 
house is building;" "The garments are making-." "Wheat is 
selling," etc. Though such expressions have been used in all 
time past by the best writers, an attempt has been made by some 
grammarians of b.te, to banish them from the language, and to 
justify and defend a clumsy solecism, which has been introduced 
within the last forty years, chiefly through the newspaper press, 
but which has gained such currency, and is becoming so familiar 
to the ear, that it seems likely to prevail, with all its uncouth- 
ness and deformity. I refer to such expressions as " The house 
is being built-," "The letter is being written-," "The mine is 
being worked;" "The news is being telegraphed," etc. etc. 

Respecting this mode of expression, it may be noticed — 

1. That it had no existence in the language till within the last 
forty years. This, indeed, would not make it wrong, were it 
otherwise unexceptionable-, but it shows that it is not, as is pre- 
tended, a necessary form-, and in some measure accounts for tht. 
insolence and effrontery with which, like all upstarts, it seeks to 
override and bear down that which is venerable for its antiquity, 
and commended by its propriety. 

2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to 
express what it is intended to express, and would be used only 
by such as are either ignorant of its import, or are careless and 
loose in their use of language. To make this manifest, let it be 
considered, first, that there is no progressive form of the verb to 
be, and no need of it-, hence, there is no such expression in En 
lish as is being. Of course, the expression "is being built," for 
example, is not a compound of is being and built, but of is and 
being built; that is, of the verb to be and the present participle 
passive. Now, let it be observed that the only verbs in which 
the present participle passive expresses a continued action, are 
those mentioned above as the first class, in which the regular 
passive form expresses a continuance of the action-, as, is loved^ 
is desired, etc., and in which of course the form in question (is 
being built) is not required. Nobody would think of saying, 
" He is being loved-," " This result is being desired." 

In all other verbs, then, the present participle passive, like the 
present tense in the second class of verbs mentioned above, ex- 
presses, not a continued action, or the continued receiving of an 
action, but that the action has ceased, and the result only exists 
in a finished state. Thus, " Our arrangements being made, we 
departed-," "The house being finished, was immediately occu- 
pied-," " Our work being finished, we may rest," etc. In all 
such expressions, the present participle passive represents the ao- 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion as now finished, and existing only in its results (191). This 
finished act, then, can not be made unfinished and progressive, 
by being asserted of a subject, which is all the verb to be, as a 
copula, can express. Hence, it is manifest that is being built, if 
it mean any thing, can mean nothing more than is built, which is 
not the idea intended to be expressed. 

3. For the same reason that is being built, etc. is contended for 
as a proper expression, we should contend also for, " Has been 
being built*," " Had been being built-," u Shall have been being 
built-," " Might have been being built-," "To be being built-,' 1 
" To have been being built;" " Being being built-," " Having 
been being built." When all these shall have been introduced, our 
language will be rich indeed. 

4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an es- 
tablished usage of the language, namely, the passive sense in 
some verbs of the participle in ing (190). In reference to this, it 
is flippantly asked. u What does the house build?" " What does 
the letter write? etc." taking for granted, without attempting to 
prove, that the participle in ing can not have a passive sense in 
any verb. The following are a few examples from writers of the 
best reputation, which this novelty would condemn-. " While the 
ceremony was performing." — Torn Brown. " The court was then 
holding." — Sir G. BPKenzie. " And still be doing, never.-done." 
Butler. " The books are selling." — Allen 1 s Gram. " The work 
of the temple was carrying on." — Dr. Owen. "To know nothing 
of what is transacting in the region above us." — Br. Blair. "The 
spot where this new and strange tragedy was acting.'' 1 — E. Eve- 
rett. " The fortress was building." — Irving. u An attempt is 
making in the English parliament." — D. Webster. " The church 
now erecting in the city of New York." — N. A. Review. "This 
movement was making." — Cooper. "These things were trans- 
acting in England."— Bancroft. 

5. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous 
judgment of the most distinguished grammarians and critics, who 
have considered the subject, and expressed their views concerning 
it. The following are a specimen: "Expressions of this kind are 
condemned by some critics-, but the usage is unquestionably of 
far better authority, and (according to my apprehension) in far 
better taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late 
writers adopt in its stead 5 as, c The books are now being sold. 1 " 
Goold Brown. Be War observes: " The participle in ing is also 
passive in many instances ; as, ' The house is building -,' 'I heard 
Df apian forming,' etc." — Quoted in Frazeeh Grammar, page 49. 

'It would be an absurdity, indeed, tp give up the only way we 
aave of denoting the incomplete state of action by a passive form" 
jviz. by the participle in ing in the passive • sense). — ArnoWs 
English Grammar, p. 46. "The present participle is often used 
oassively-, as, 'The ship is building.' The form of expression, 
Is being built, is being committed, etc., is almost universally con- 



APPENDIX. 215 

demned by grammarians, but it is sometimes met with in re- 
spectable writers •, it occurs most frequently in newspaper para- 
graphs and in hasty compositions. See Worcester's Universal 
and Critical Dictionary. 1 ' — JVcld's Grammar, p. 118 and ISO. 
u When we say, ' The house is building, 1 the advocates of the 
new theory ask. ' Building what?' We might ask, in turn, 
when you say, '"The field ploughs well;' ' Ploughs what?' 'Wheat 
sells well-' L Sells what? 1 If usage allows us to say, • Wheat 
sells at a dollar 1 , in a sense which is not active, why may it not 
also allow us to say\vheat is selling at a dollar, in a sense that 
is not active? 11 — Harfs Gram., p. 76. " The prevailing practice 
of the best authors is in favor of the simple form 5 as, ' The house 
is building. 111 — WelVs School Gram., p. 148. " Several other 
expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new- 
fangled and most uncouth solecism ; is being done,' 1 for the good 
old English idiom ' is doing'' — an absurd periphrasis driving out 
a pointed and pithy turn of the English language. 11 — N. A. Re 
view, quoted by Mr. Wells, p. 148. 

This usage some suppose has its origin in the use of the verbal 
noun after in, to express the same idea; thus, "Forty and six 
years was this temple in building;" " And the house, when it was 
in building, was built of stone made ready, so that there was nei- 
ther hammer nor axe heard in the house, while it was in build- 
ing." In the absence of emphasis, the in being indistinctly ut- 
tered, came to be spoken, and consequently to be written, a; as, 
"While the ark was a preparing" (I Pet. iii. 20), and finally to 
be omitted altogether. Similar changes of prepositions we have 
in the expressions, a going, a running, a hunting, a fishing, 
etc. Others, again, suppose that this ought to be regarded as an 
original idiom of the language, similar to the passive use of the 
infinitive active in such expressions as, "You are to blame:" "A 
house to let;" " Knives to grind," etc. But whether either of 
these is the true account of this matter or not, the fact is certain. 
It is therefore the duty of the grammarian to note the fact, though 
he may be unable to account for it. 

XX. TWO FIRST, THREE LAST, &c. 

The expressions, two first, three last, and the like, have been 
opposed and ridiculed by some, on the ground, as they allege, that 
there can be only one first, and one last. The objectors evidently 
have not well considered their position-, for — 

1. The terms first and last do not necessarily mean only ond 
First, according to Webster, means, " preceding all others. 11 The 
two first, then, means the two preceding all others, and the three 
last means the three succeeding all others •, expressions in which 
there is surely nothing either ridiculous or absurd. 

2. If we say, " The first days of summer; 1 ' Ci The first years 
of our life-, 11 "The last days of Pompeii," which nobody doubts, 
then, it is not true that there can be only one first and one last 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and so the ground of the objection fails. If we can say, "The 
last days of summer," why not the two last, or the three last? 

3. The expression objected to is used by the best authorities in 
the language, and has been in use hundreds of years-, and there- 
fore, on the well-known maxim, " Usage is the law of language," 
even if it were absurd, it can not be rejected. The following are 
examples, most of them mentioned by Mr. Wells : u The four first 
acts." — Bp. Berkeley. " The three first monarchies." — Warbur- 
ton. u The two first persons." — Latham's Eng. Gram. " My" 
two last letters." — Addison. "The two first lines." — Blair. 
"The three first generations." — E. Everett. "The two first 
years." — Bancroft. " The two first days." — Irving. "The two 
first cantos." — A. H. Everett. " The four first centuries." — Pres- 
cott. "The two last productions." — N. A. Preview. "The four 
first are — poetical." — Cheever. "The three first of his longer 
poems." — Southey. "The two last schools." — Johnson. "The 
six first French kings." — Macaulay. 

4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the 
other. It is probably always so, when the number characterized 
as first or last constitutes a majority of the whole. When we say, 
" the first four," there is evidently a reference to a second four, 
or a last four. But if the first four constitute a majority of the 
whole, there remains no second four to justify the reference. 
Thus, when we say, "The first four acts of a play were well 
performed," there remains only one to which any other reference 
can be made. On the other hand, when a whole is divided into 
equal portions, each containing a certain number, as the recurrence 
of the census every five years — of the Olympic games every four 
— of the sabbath every seven days — of four lines in each stanza 
of a poem, and the like — then the expression, first four, second 
four^ last four, etc., is preferable, because it implies a reference 
to other portions of equal extent. Also, even when there is no 
such reference, it is often properly used, especially when the 
number is large; as, "The first hundred ; v "The last thou- 
sand," etc. 

5. Several distinguished scholars and grammarians have ex- 
amined this point, and expressed their views respecting it as fol- 
lows : "It has been doubted whether the cardinal should precede 
or follow the ordinal numeral." Atterbury says in one of his 
letters to Pope-. "Not but that the four first lines are good." 
"We conceive the expression to be quite correct, though the other 
form be often employed to denote the same conception." — Crom- 
bie's English Syntax, p. 240. " Some grammarians object to the 
use of the numerals two, four, etc., before the adjectives first 
and last. There seems, however, to be no good reason for the 
objection, and the expressions two first, two last, etc., are fully 
sanctioned by good usage." — Wells's Grammar, p. 137. The 
following is a note on the same page : "It has been fashionable 
©f late to write the first three, and so on, in stead of the three 



APPENDIX. 217 

fast. People write in this way to avoid the seeming absurdity 
of implying that more than one thing can be first ; but it is at 
least equally as absurd to talk about the first four* when, as often 
happens, there is no second four." — Arnold. " Surely if there 
can be only one last, one first, there can be only 'a last one,' c a 
first one.' I need only observe, that usage is decidedly in favor 
of the former phraseology. 1 ' — Grant. 

' "The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor 
of substituting first two. so far as I can recollect, is this : In the 
nature of things, there can be only one first and one last, in any 
series of things. Bat is it true that there can never be more than 
one first* and one last ? If it be so, then the adjectives first and 
last must always be of the singular number, and can never agree 
with nouns in the plural. ' We are told that the first years of a 
lawyer's practice are seldom very lucrative.' ' The poet tells us 
that his first essays were severely handled by the critics, but his 
last efforts have been well received.' Examples like these might 
be produced, without number- they occur everywhere, in all our 
standard writers. * # * When a numeral adjective, and a 
qualifying epithet, both refer to the same noun, the general rule 
of the English language is to place the numeral first, then the 
qualifying epithet, and then the noun. Thus we say, • The two 
wise men,' ' The two tall men-,' and not 'The icise two men,' 
'The tall two men.' And the same rule holds in superlatives. 
We say, ; The two wisest men,' * The two tallest men-,' and not 
4 The wisest tico men,' ' The tallest two men.' Now, if this be 
admitted to be the general rule of the English language, then it 
follows that generally we should say, ' The two first.' ' The two 
last."* etc., rather than c The first two.'' c The last two."* etc. This > 
I say, should generally be the order of the words. Yet *here are 
gome cases in which it seems preferable to say. ' The first two* 
1 The last two* etc."— Dr. Murdoch. 

XXL FIRST AND SECOND, &c. 

Two or more adjectives connected, without an article interve- 
ning, belong to the same noun- as " A red and white rose-" that 
is, one rose partly red and partly white. Hence, care should be 
taken to see that the qualities expressed by adjectives so used be 
consistent, or such as maybe found in one object. Thus, it would 
be improper to say, "An old and young man-," " A round and 
square hole-," " A hot and cold spring-," because a man can not 
be old and young at the same time-, nor a hole round and square; 
nor a spring hot and cold. Hence — 

When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to 
different objects of the same name, and that name expressed only 
with the last, the article should be placed before each adjective*, 
thus, u Area and a white rose" means two roses-, one red, and 
one white. In this case, it makes no difference whether the 
qualities expressed by the adjectives be consistent or not, since 

19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

they belong to different individuals. Thus, we can say, "A young 
and an old man-." " A round and a square hole-," " a hot and a 
cold spring •" that is, one man young, and another old, etc. It 
is therefore manifest that we can not properly say, " The first 
and second page-," "The fifth and sixth verse-," "The Old and 
New Testament -," because no page can be at once first and second 
— no verse fifth and sixth, and no Testament Old and New. It 
is equally improper in principle to say, " The first and second 
pages," " The fifth and sixth verses," because two adjectives can 
not be joined with a word jointly which can not be joined with it 
separately. We can not say, " the first pages"' nor " the second 
pages," when we mean but one first and one second. Besides, 
when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands " the first page and the 
second page ;" and the omission of the first noun can not, on any 
correct principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases, 
too. the use of the plural, if it would relieve from the absurdity 
of uniting inconsistent qualities in an object, will as certainly 
lead to ambiguity. For if, to avoid the absurdity of saying " the 
old and young man, 11 we say "the old and young men." the latter 
expression may mean fifty, or a hundred, or any number of men, 
instead of two-, one young and one old. Notwithstanding, how- 
ever, usage has prevailed over principle in this as well as in other 
cases-, and it has become quite common to say, " The first and 
second verses-," " The Old and New Testaments-," " The hot and 
cold springs-," " The indicative and subjunctive moods," etc. 
When no ambiguity exists in the use of such expressions, they 
must be tolerated. The correct expression, however, in all cases 
in which one is intended, is made by repeating the article with the 
adjective, and retaining the noun in the singular / thus, " The 
first and the second verse •, :1 " The Old and the New Testament •," 
" The hot and the cold spring," etc. , or, " The first verse and th* 
second," etc* 



/) 



QUESTIONS. 

GRAMMAR AND ORTHOGRAPHY. §§ 1, 2. 

What is Grammar? What is its object as a science? — as an 
art? What is English Grammar? Into what parts is it divided 
Of what does Orthography treat? — Etymology? — Syntax? — Pro- 
sody ? Of what does Orthography treat besides letters ? What 
is a letter ? How many letters are in the English Alphabet ? 
How are they divided ? What is a vowel ? What letters are 
vowels ? What is a consonant ? What letters are consonants ? 
When are w and y vowels? — when consonants' 2 What is a diph- 
thong? — a proper diphthong? — an improper diphthong? — a triph- 
thong? 

What is a syllable? How do we know how many syllables a 
word contains? What is a monosyllable? — a dissyllable? — a tri- 
syllable — a polysyllable? What is syllabication? What is the 
general rule for dividing words into syllables? When should a 
hyphen be placed between two words? How should words be 
divided at the end of a line? 

§ 2. What is spelling? How is proficiency in spelling to be 
acquired? What is the first general rule? — the second? — the 
third ?— the fourth?— the fifth ?— the sixth?— the seventh?— the 
eighth? 

ETYMOLOGY AND PARTS OF SPEECH. §§ 3, 4. 
Of what does Etymology treat? What are words? How are 
words divided in respect of their formation ? — of their form ? — 
of signification and use? What is a primitive word? — a deriva- 
tive? — a simple? — a compound? What is a declinable word? — 
an indeclinable? How many parts of speech are there in En- 
glish? Which are declinable ? — indeclinable ? What is a sub- 
stantive ? How is the term substantive used in this Grammar ? 
What is Parsing ? How is a word parsed etymologically ? — 
syntactically? 

NOUN. §§ 5-11. 
§ 5. What is a noun ? Into what two kinds are nouns divi- 
ded ? What is a proper noun ? — a common noun ? What is the 
use of proper nouns? — of common nouns? How do proper nouns 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

become common ? How do common nouns become proper? WhaT 
is the usual subdivision of common nouns? What is a collective 
noun ? — an abstract noun ? — a verbal noun ? What are the acci- 
dents of the noun? 

§ 6. Person. — What is person? How many persons are there? 
When is a noun in the first person? — in the second? — in the third? 

§ 7. Gender. What is gender? How many genders are there? 
What nouns are masculine? — feminine? — neuter? How many 
ways of distinguishing the sex are there? What is the first? 
(Give examples) — the second? (Give examples) — the third? (Give 
examples). What is meant by common gender? When are neu- 
ter nouns to be regarded as masculine or feminine? When the 
sex of an animal is not known to us, what gender do we assign to 
it ? How do we consider those of inferior size? When does 
the masculine term include the female as well as the male? 

§§ 8, 9, 10. Number. What is number? What numbers have 
nouns? What does the singular denote? — the plural? How do 
nouns commonly form the plural? What is the first special rule? 
its exceptions? How do nouns that end in y after a consonant, 
form the plural? — in y after a vowel? — in /or fe? What are the 
exceptions? What nouns are irregular in the plural? What nouns 
have both a regular and irregular form? How do some compounds 
form the plural? — words from foreign languages? (Give exam- 
ples). Have proper names commonly a plural? Why? When 
have they a plural? have usually the sin- 

gular only? — the plural only? — the same form in both? — are plural 
in form, but singular in construction? — singular or plural in con- 
struction? 

§ 11. Case. What is case? What cases have nouns? How 
is the nominative used? — the possessive? — the objective? Which 
cases are alike? How is the possessive formed in the singular? — 
in the plural ?— in the plural not ending in s? For what is the 
apostrophe and s an abbreviation? When is the s omitted after 
an apostrophe in the singular. What is equivalent to the pos- 
sessive case? When should this expression be used instead of the 
possessive? How is a noun parsed etymologically? 

THE ARTICLE. § 12. 

What is an article? What is its use? What are the articles ? 
What is a or an called ?-— why? What is the called? — why"? 



QUESTIONS. 221 

How is a noun without an article taken? Before what letters is 
a used? — an? When is a used before a vowel? When is an used 
before h? How is an article parsed etymological ly. 

THE ADJECTIVE. §§ 13, 14. 

§ 13. What is an adjective? What is meant by qualifying a 
noun? When may an adjective qualify a pronoun? What else 
may it qualify in this position? W T hendo nouns become adjectives? 
When are adjectives used as nouns? What are adjectives called 
that express number? How many classes of numerals are there? 
What are the cardinal numerals? What do they express? What 
are the ordinal numerals? What do they express? How are 
compound numerals made ordinal? 

§ 14. Comparison. What degrees of comparison have adjec- 
tives? What does the positive express? — the comparative? — the 
superlative? How are adjectives of one syllable compared — of 
two or more ? How are dissyllables in le after a mute compared? 
— dissyllables in y ? What classes of adjectives do not admit of 
comparison ? (Give examples in each). Of what degree are su- 
perior, inferior, and the like? Why are they not comparatives? 
What is meant by the superlative of eminence ? How is the sig- 
nification of the positive sometimes diminished? What adjectives 
are compared irregularly ? (Compare them). How is much ap- 
plied ? — many ? — elder and eldest ? — older and oldest ? 

PRONOUNS. §§ 15-18. 

§ 15. What is a Pronoun? Into what classes are pronouns 
divided? What are the personal pronouns? (Decline thern^. 
What pronouns are of the first person? Why? — of the second? 
Why? — of the third ? W T hy? What are the compound personal 
pronouns? In what cases are they used? For what purpose are 
they used in the nominative ? — in the objective ? How is we used 
in proclamations, etc. ? In what style is thou used ? What is used 
for thou in the common style ? How is it used before the verb to 
be ? How are personal pronouns parsed ? 

§ 16. Relative. What is a relative pronoun ? (Name them). 
Which are declinable ? Which are indeclinable ? (Decline who — 
which). To what is who applied ? — which ? How is which ap- 
plied in the Bible ? How is that used as a relative ? To what is 
it applied ? To what is the relative what applied ? When is it 
used ? To what is it equivalent ? What relatives are sometime? 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

used as adjectives? What are the compound relatives? To what 
are they equivalent ? What are who, which and what in respon- 
sive sentences? How is the gender and number of the relative 
determined ? How are relatives parsed ? 

§17. Interrogative s. What pronouns are employed in ask- 
ing questions ? What are they then called ? What interrogative 
is applied to persons? What, to things ? How are the mterro- 
garives who, tvhich, and what distinguished when applied to per- 
sons ? What does whether mean ? How is it now used ? 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. § 18. 

What are adjective pronouns ? Into what classes are they di- 
vided ? 

Possessives. What is & possessive adjective pronoun ? (Name 
them). To what is the possessive pronoun equivalent in mean- 
ing ? How does it differ in use from the possessive case ? What 
are his and her when followed by a substantive ? — when not fol- 
lowed by a substantive ? When are mine and thine used as pos- 
sessives ? 

Distributives. What is a distributive adjective pronoun ? 
(Name them). What does each denote? — every? — either?— 
neither ? 

Demonstratives. What is a demonstrative pronoun ? (Name 
them) . What other words may be called demonstratives ? When 
is that a relative ? — when a demonstrative ? — when a conjunczion ? 

Indefinites. What are indefinite pronouns ? (Name the inde- 
finite pronouns) . How is none used ? How is an adjective pro- 
noun parsed ? 

VERBS. §§ 19-32. 

§ 19. What is a verb ? What is its use in simple propositions? 
What is the subject of a verb ? Into what two classes are verbs 
divided ? What is a transitive verb ? What forms has it ? What 
is an intransitive verb ? What does the word transitive mean as 
applied to verbs ? — intransitive ? What is the usual form of in- 
transitive verbs ? In how many ways are intransitive verbs ren- 
dered transitive ? What are they ? How are transitive verbs 
distinguished from intransitive ? What is the first method ?•— 
rhe second ?— the third' 1 How is a transitive verb used when it 
is without an object ? 

How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a regular 



QUESTIONS. 223 

verb ? — an irregular ? — a defective verb ? To which, of these 
classes do auxiliaries belong ? — impersonal verbs ? 

§ 20. Auxiliary Verbs. What is an auxiliary verb ? In 
what tenses are they used ? (Name them in the present tense — 
in the past.) What verbs are used both as auxiliaries and prin- 
cipal verbs ? What does shall imply? — will? — may ? — can? In 
what tense are will and shall auxiliaries ? — may or can ? How 
are will and shall disiinguished in expressing resolution or pur- 
pose ? — in expressing simple futurity? — in interrogations ? How 
are verbs inflected ? 

§ 21. Voice. What is voice ? Tn English how many voices 
are there ? (Name them). What kind of verbs have two voices? 
How does the active voice represent the subject ? — the passive ? 
Are any verbs used both in a transitive and an intransitive sense? 
(Give an example). 

§ 22. Moods. What is mood ? How many moods have verbs? 
(Name them). How is a verb used in the indicative mood ? — in 
the potential ? — in the subjunctive ? — in the imperative ? — in the 
infinitive ? How does the declaration made by the indicative 
mood differ from that made by the potential ? How does the 
subjunctive differ in form from the indicative ? Why is the sub- 
junctive mood so called ? Is the indicative ever used subjunc- 
tively ? — is the potential ? What persons has the imperative 
mood ? What is the true character of the infinitive ? 

§§ 23, 24. Tenses. What are tenses ? How is time naturally 
divided ? In each of these, how may an action, etc. be repre- 
sented ? How many tenses are there in English ? (Name them). 
What does the present tense express ? — the present-perfect ? — 
the past ? — the past-perfect ? — the future ? — the future peifect ? 
What is a simple tense ? — a compound ? Which tenses are sim- 
ple ? — which compound ? What different things is the present 
tense in the simple form, used to express ? — the present-perfect ? 
To what tense in Latin does the present-perfect in English cor- 
respond ? What tenses has the indicative mood ? — the potential? 
— the subjunctive ? — the imperative? — the infinitive * — the par. 
ticiple? 

§ 25, Participles. What is a participle ? Why so called? 
How many participles have verbs in the active voice ? (Name 
them) — in the passive ? (Name them). How does the present 
participle active always end ? Has it ever a passive sense ? 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(Give an example). Does the past participle active differ in 
form from the past participle passive ? Is the perfect participle 
simple or compound ? When do participles become adjectives ? 
What participles may become adjectives in this way ? (Give ex- 
amples). W 7 hat participles are used as verbal nouns ? (Give an 
example of each). When a participle is so used, what cases does 
t have 

§ 28. Number and Person. How t many numbers have verbs ? 
in each of these, how many persons are there ? Of what does 
Ihe first person assert? — the second? — the third ? 

§ 27. Conjugation. What is the conjugation of a verb ? 
What two forms has the verb in the active voice ? What does 
the common form express ? — the p?'og?-essive ? How is a verb 
rendered emphatic in the present ? — irt the past ? — in the com- 
pound tenses ? What are called the principal parts of a verb ? 
What is conjugating a verb ? (Conjugate the verb to love in the 
active voice-, — inflect it through all its parts). How is a verb 
parsed? 

§ 28. Forms. How is a verb made to deny ? How, in the 
infinitive and participles? How is a verb made to ask a question? 
How are interrogative sentences made negative. 

$ 29, 30, 31. To Be, etc. Conjugate the irregular verb to be. 
(Inflect it). How T is the progressive form of the verb made? How 
is the passive voice formed? Conjugate to love in the passive 
voice. (Inflect it). 

§ 32. Irregular and Defective Verbs. What is an irre- 
gular verb ? Conjugate abide, etc. (see the list). What is a de- 
fective verb ? What are the defective verbs ? What is an im- 
personal verb ? (Give examples). Properly speaking, what is 
the pronoun it before the impersonal verb ? 
adveubs. §§ 33, 34. 

What is an adverb ? Into what classes have adverbs been di- 
vided ? Wbat is the chief use of adverbs ? What kind of adverbs 
idmit of comparison ? What adverbs are compared irregularly ? 
(Give examples of words made into adverbs, by prefixing a). 
What are as and so in comparisons ? What is an adverbial 
phrase ? How is there used at the beginning of a sentence ? 
How is an adverb parsed ? 



QUESTIONS. 225 

PREPOSITIONS. § 35. 
What is a preposition ? Of the related words, what is that be- 
fore the preposition called ? — that after it ? Why are words of 
this class called prepositions? (Give a list of prepositions). What 
case does a preposition require after it ? What does a preposition 
become when it has no object? Are prepositions ever understood? 
(Give an example). What are inseparable prepositions ? (Name 
them). How are prepositions parsed ? 

INTERJECTIONS. § 36. 
What is an interjection ? Have interjections any gram maticai 
connection with other words in a sentence ? What is the differ 
ence between O and Oh? -How' are interjections parsed ? 
CONJUNCTIONS. § 37. 
What is a conjunction ? Into what classes are conjunctions 
divided ? What is the use of copulative conjunctions ? — of dis- 
junctive ? What are the principal copulatives — disjunctives ? 
What does and denote ? What do or and nor denote ? How are 
conjunctions parsed? 

PARSING. §§ 38, 39. 

What is parsing ? How is one part of speech to be distin- 
guished from another ? How do we know when a word is- a. noun? 
— an adjective ? — a pronoun ? — a verb ? — an adverb? — a preposU 
Hon 7 — an interjection? — a. conjunction? What are the general 
principles to be kept in view in parsing ? Give specimens of 
parsing. 




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